It may, perhaps, be allowable to make a few observations on this statement, more particularly as Mr. Nicholson is seldom spoken of in connexion with printing machines, and when he is, it is in such a manner as to convey the impression that he was a visionary man, who had some imaginary scheme in his head which he was incompetent to carry into effect. To rebut this opinion I have given the specification of his patent, with his own observations on his invention, which certainly do not discover any symptoms of a weak or a speculative man. I knew Mr. Nicholson personally, and I have no doubt that, had he lived, he would have carried his invention into effect; but he had a number of other pursuits which occupied his time. He published a work on navigation, which I have seen quoted as authority for its opinions; he was the author of a Dictionary of Chemistry, in two quarto volumes; he edited and published monthly Nicholson’s Journal of Science, &c. which was in high repute; he wrote the Prospectus for the Royal Institution, on its establishment in 1799; and he likewise kept a large school in Soho Square, the leading feature of which was, a scientific education. I was, for ten years, in the habit of hearing in an undisguised manner the opinions of the most eminent scientific men in England,—as I held the office of Assistant Secretary to the Board of Managers of the Royal Institution, (the Secretary being an honorary officer,) also that of Secretary to the Patrons of the Library, and Secretary to the Committee of Chemistry, as well as Superintendant of their Printing Office,—and in all that time I never heard his name mentioned but with respect among these gentlemen, nor did I once hear him spoken of as a visionary who would project schemes that he was unable to execute. In addition to his multifarious pursuits, he was agent to the late Lord Camelford, whose sudden death left Mr. Nicholson involved in difficulties, from which he could never extricate himself.

Could this man, then, who planned the printing machine, and the manner of printing calico, &c. in an improved and expeditious manner, who moreover published the details of his process, with drawings of the requisite machines, be deemed, with justice, nothing more than “one of whom we can only say that he was simply the first to suggest ideas,” this being all the merit that is allowed him by the Literary Gazette? Now it appears to me that the term “suggesting ideas” refers with rather more truth to Mr. König, who, coming to England with the idea of applying steam as the moving power to presses, and being supported by English capital, spent some years in unavailing efforts to reduce his ideas to practice, and when he could not succeed, gave up the attempt as one completely foiled, and turning round upon Mr. Nicholson’s plan, produced a cylindrical printing machine.

Dr. Olinthus Gregory, in a lecture delivered by him before the Mechanics Institution at Deptford, in 1826, among other topics illustrative of the patronage afforded to the arts and sciences by the intelligence and enterprise of this country, directed the attention of his audience to “the case of Mr. König, a truly ingenious foreigner, and his invention of an improved printing press, in which, by duly blending the alternating and rotatory principles of motion, the apparatus is capable of working off 1100 sheets an hour, with the superintendance of two boys. Tracing the history of his invention, of his difficulties, and of his want of encouragement, through the greater part of the continent of Europe, Mr. König says, ‘I need hardly add, that scarcely ever was an invention brought to maturity under such circumstances. The well known fact, that almost every invention seeks, as it were, refuge in England, and is there brought to perfection, seems to indicate that the Continent has yet to learn from her the best manner of encouraging the mechanical arts. I had my full share in the ordinary disappointments of continental projectors; and, after having spent in Germany and Russia upwards of two years in fruitless applications, I proceeded to England.’

“What could not be accomplished by the encouragement of princes on the Continent,” proceeds Dr. Gregory, “was effected by the aid of private individuals in London. A few enterprising printers,—and their names cannot be mentioned but with honour on such an occasion; Mr. Thomas Bensley, Mr. George Woodfall, and Mr. Richard Taylor,—liberally assisted this ingenious foreigner in bringing his invention to maturity. The machine was set to work in April 1811, and 3000 copies of sheet H of the “New Annual Register for 1810,” was printed by means of it. This was, doubtless, the first part of a book ever printed solely by a machine. Messrs. Bacon and Donkin were, it is true, simultaneously at work upon analogous contrivances, and, since then, other ingenious artists, especially Applegath and Cowper, have contributed greatly to the simplification of this class of machinery.”

In 1818, Messrs. Donkin and Bacon obtained a patent for a most ingenious but complex machine, which claims the merit of having been the first to print with a circular movement of the types. It is said that the invention of this machine was simultaneous with that of König. A great point was gained in it, for the composition inking rollers were first introduced in this machine, Mr. König’s having rollers covered with leather, which were not found to answer the purpose so well.

In this machine the patent specified the fastening of the pages of type to the surface of a prismatic cylinder having any number of planes from four to eight; to these types the ink was immediately supplied by a large elastic roller placed over the type cylinder, and made to rise and fall in accordance with the irregular motion of the surfaces of the latter; two other and smaller rollers conveying the ink from a receptacle to the larger roller. The sheet of paper to be printed was applied to another revolving prism, composed of segments of cylinders exactly adapted to meet the irregularities of the type roller. To insure the niceties and regularities of motion and of contact required in printing, toothed wheels, corresponding in shape to the prisms, were placed upon the axis; and however strange, at first sight, may appear to non-mechanical persons the working together of metal wheels of such angular shapes, yet by providing for a free vertical motion of the gudgeons of each roller, the operation of the whole machine was steady and uniform. The annexed diagram, representing a section of the principal parts, will enable the reader to form a more correct idea of this curious machine.

A, the quadrangular prismatic roller, with its surfaces of stereotype plates.

B, the roller for distributing the ink, which it receives from the two smaller rollers a e, in contact with the box i.

C, the pressing cylinder, covered with cloth or felt.

D E, the track of the paper in the direction of the arrows.

The Norwich Mercury, a paper published by Mr. Bacon, contains a prospectus of his newly invented machine, to which is added a notice respecting its merit as compared with that of Mr. König, erected at the Times printing office, from which statement the following is an extract:—

“In Messrs. Bacon and Donkin’s machine, there is no reciprocating motion. The types are placed on a prism of as many sides as the nature of the form requires. This prism occupies the centre of an upright frame, like the roller in a copperplate press; below this is a kind of compound-faced roller, suited to the form of the prism; through between these the sheets to be printed (attached to the face of a piece of cloth) are passed in succession, and in the meantime the revolution in the type prism brings its different portions in succession under a system of inking rollers placed over it, by which it receives successive charges of ink, to be delivered to the sheets as they pass in succession between the lower rollers.”

Mr. Hansard, in his “Typographia,” says, that “one machine would not answer for all kinds of work.” And “the only one of these machines that was, I believe, ever made, rests in peace as not being found useful.”

On the erection of the machines for printing the Times newspaper, Mr. Bensley being apprehensive that there would be impediments thrown in the way of their general introduction by the workmen, who had already shown symptoms of opposition, was desirous that I should see them at work, that he might have my opinion on the subject. I accordingly went with Mr. Joseph Bensley, his eldest son, to look at them, and view their manner of working, and on my return, Mr. Bensley was anxious to see me, that he might have my report. I told him that truly they surpassed any thing I had imagined, and did the work so well, and so expeditiously, that I did not believe any opposition on the part of the workmen could prevent their coming into use. This opinion was gratifying to him: but I also told him that I foresaw another thing that might probably take place, which would have an equally injurious effect with respect to him. With considerable anxiety he asked to what I alluded; I told him that I thought some man of abilities would step in and simplify them, for they appeared to me complex in their construction. He treated this suggestion with indifference, as a thing that could never happen, and expressed himself perfectly satisfied that no person would ever make the attempt. My prognostication, however, was fulfilled; for immediately after, Mr. Edward Cowper, of the firm of Applegath and Cowper, printers, proved not only its possibility, but its practicability, by sweeping away at once wheels, &c. which had cost, as I was credibly informed at the time, at least 1500l. in the course of their experiments; and thus made the machine more simple, and less liable to be out of order, while he at the same time improved it greatly in its facility of working, and in the quality of the work it produced. Mr. Cowper took out a patent for his improvement; and, as I was told, in consideration of the expense that Mr. Bensley had been at in the pursuit, which amounted to at least 16,000l., offered him, as an act of justice, a share of the patent, which was accepted. The machine erected for “The Times” cost the proprietor of that newspaper 3,000l.

Messrs. Applegath and Cowper then commenced manufacturing these machines, which met with general approval; they also much improved the inking apparatus. After the dissolution of their partnership, Mr. Cowper established a manufactory for them at Manchester, in conjunction with his brother, he himself continuing to reside in London.

In the year 1824 a new mode of machine printing was introduced, that of printing with two colours simultaneously in the same impression. This arose out of the Commission appointed by Government to inquire into the best means of preventing the Forgery of Bank Notes. A pamphlet was published by Sir William Congreve, describing the process as inimitable, except by their machine, for which they had a patent, so that no one else could possibly produce a facsimile. A design was made, generally composed of a great number of lines in a flourishing style, and, when engraved on two pieces of metal, these lines were printed with two colours, one part sinking below the other after each impression, and, there being two sets of inking rollers, each part was inked at the same time, when the lower part rose again to a level with the other, so that one part of these complicated lines should be black, and the continuation of them should be blue or red, or any other colour that might be thought proper, and any device that might be included in the design should also be in two colours, such, for instance, as the King’s arms, and the register should be exact, so that each line should uniformly be perfectly continuous, notwithstanding the change of colour. Government adopted the plan for printing a new stamp on the backs of country bank notes, and also for the Excise Stamps for paper. So far, however, from being inimitable, I have no hesitation in saying, that there never was a plan suggested that was more easy of imitation, even with the common press, and by the customary workmen. The machines were made by Messrs. Donkin and Co.

A single machine, that is, a machine which prints one side of the paper only, may be estimated to produce upon the average one thousand impressions in an hour; and were I to attempt to describe the one by which the Times newspaper is now printed, I should state that it is the mechanism of four single machines combined in one frame, all being worked simultaneously by steam as the motive power: thus there are four places at which to feed it with paper, four printing cylinders, and four places at which the sheets are delivered when printed, so that the actual speed of each part of the machine is rather more than one thousand an hour. This ingenious and skilful combination is the production of Mr. Augustus Applegath.

I have seen it stated by the proprietor of a machine, that it would print at the rate of two thousand impressions in an hour: I have known another assert that his perfecting machine would print one thousand five hundred in the same time. This is a fallacy, which produces disappointment and dissatisfaction. I have had occasion in the course of business to satisfy myself as to their real capability, by attending and carefully observing them at work, and have thus ascertained that a single machine cannot be depended on for more than one thousand in the hour, nor a perfecting machine for more than seven hundred and fifty. I am well aware that both may be driven with greater speed for a short time, but in the case of newspapers and periodical publications, where punctuality is indispensably requisite, I would never calculate upon greater expedition.

With respect to the comparative merits of the cylindrical method of printing and those of the press, the manufacturers of machines as well as most master printers, not content with the real superiority of properties which the machine does certainly possess, attribute to it properties which it does not possess, and which are incompatible with it, namely, those of producing the finest work, and printing the finest impressions from highly finished engravings on wood at the rate of eight hundred or one thousand per hour; even an engraver on wood has fallen into this error, and has produced a work with numerous beautiful illustrations, in which the writer of the book has boldly defended this erroneous opinion, but the engraver himself has cautiously avoided the risk of, and shrunk from, the comparison, and has had the book printed at the press. The Penny Magazine has trumpeted the same fallacy; and yet the spirited Publisher has all his splendid works, with their beautiful illustrations, printed also at the press: thus tacitly acknowledging its superiority, and denying the opinions which he is the means of publishing to the world.

In producing the finest workmanship in printing, it is essentially requisite to use the best ink: this is ink made with strong varnish, which binds the colouring matter, and, when dry, prevents its smearing on being handled or setting-off in the process of binding; the colouring matters are selected with care from among those of the best quality; the whole is ground to a state of impalpability; the strength of the varnish causes the ink to require a great deal of distributing on the balls, which I prefer to rollers for the best work,—See Balls,—in order to diffuse it equally on their surface; the form should be well and carefully beat, so as to coat the face of the types, &c. completely and uniformly with ink, without any superfluity; the pressure should be slow and gradual, what is termed a soaking pull, not quick and abrupt, and when the bar of the press is brought home, the workman should rest there a short time, in order to transfer the ink completely from the types, &c. to the paper, and fix it firmly on its surface. These precautions and care are necessary to produce the finest work in printing; and in every instance, in whatever art or manufacture the article may be, good workmanship and high finish will be found to require more time for their production than in an inferior article.

From the rapidity with which impressions are produced by the cylindrical method of printing, it must be apparent that it is not capable of executing work of a superior kind, as the ink must be weak to enable the light rollers to distribute it as expeditiously as it is required; the ink too must be prepared with a soft varnish to enable it to do so, which deprives it of the valuable property of drying, as well as of binding the colouring matter so as not to smear; this weak ink also incurs the risk of allowing the oil in the varnish to separate from the colouring matter, and thus spread in the paper and discolour it. Another imperfection is, that there is not time to ink the face of the type, &c. properly, which is thus obliged to be done in an imperfect manner with an inferior ink; and in taking the impression, again for lack of time, there is not pressure sufficient to fix the ink firmly to the paper.

As overlays cannot be used in cylindrical printing, the engravers on wood, when producing a subject which is to be printed at a machine, hollow out on the surface of the block the parts that are to appear light, as well as round off the edges that are to be printed lightly, and engrave on those lowered parts, so that the surface is not a perfect plane; and this is to answer the purpose of overlays, thus in practice allowing that of which they deny the necessity and which they ridicule in theory—unequal pressure to produce the desired effect; but the object is not gained by this method, for, to obtain an impression from those lowered parts, thick woollen cloth, called a blanket, is used, which, owing to its elasticity, is pressed into the hollows as well as between the lines of the depths; so that an impression is produced, in which the lights are composed of crude lines, and the depths are muddy, and which show more than the engraved line, and thus the wood-cut does not possess that delicacy in the light parts, nor that firmness in the dark, which are produced by good workmen at the press, and which give to the whole a brilliant effect.

The hollowing of the block on its surface requires great care and judgment, not only in ascertaining the precise situation and bounds, but also the precise depth to which it ought to be lowered; for if a thick blanket be used, the light parts will be produced stronger and heavier than is required, and if a thin one be used, they will either not appear, or, if they do, will be rotten, or else chalky; and some small parts in the depths will always require to be of a full firm colour, which a thick blanket and weak inferior ink will never produce. See Engravings on Wood. Fine Presswork.

The advantages that cylindrical printing possesses are of great importance in the art, and not less so with respect to the public. Its power of printing larger sheets of paper than was ever before contemplated, has enabled the proprietors of newspapers to enlarge them to a previously unparalleled extent. The rapidity with which impressions are multiplied is also an advantage of great consequence, as in the case of morning newspapers, instead of going to press on the evening preceding the publication, they can now wait until five o’clock in the morning, and even later, when if a despatch or an express arrives with any important news, it is in the hands of the public at the usual hour of publication; neither is this rapidity of less advantage to periodical publications, more particularly to those of which a large number is printed, for example, the Evangelical Magazine, and the Methodists Magazine, of each of which there were printed about 24,000 copies. When these were done at press, it was necessary to put the last sheets to press ten days before the publication, whereas now they can delay them till the third day, and yet be punctual in publishing at the regular time. They thus avail themselves of any later intelligence that may arrive, and give it publicity a month earlier than before the invention of cylindrical printing.

Another advantage in machine printing is, the regularity and uniformity of colour through any number of impressions, as it can be regulated with the greatest nicety to any shade; in this instance it is superior to the press for the production of common work, in the uniformity of colour, but only superior to common work in its rivalry with the press.

MACULE.

If the joints of the tympan, or the head, or the nut of the spindle, be loose, or any accident happen in pulling, so that the impression be somewhat doubled, and not clear, it is said to be maculed. Cards under the winter, to produce a spring, have often been the cause of maculing: the sides of the tympan or the ear of the frisket touching the cheeks will also produce the same effect. See Double. Slurring.

Magazines. See Newspaper Postage.

MAKE.

In casting off copy, they say it will make so much; as, it will make a sheet, two sheets, &c.

Make a Measure. See Justify a Stick.

MAKING READY.

This term implies the process of laying the form on the press—fixing it in its place—placing the tympan sheet on the tympan—placing the points to make register, when both sides of the paper are to be printed—making register—preparing the frisket—and producing an equal impression from all the pages, and from every part of each page.

When an engraving on wood is printed, it also denotes the overlaying it, so as to produce an impression, which shall possess all the effect that the subject may require.

In common work, where despatch is required, thick blankets are used in the tympans; and when the types are much worn they are also necessary, to bring up the rounded face of the letter. It is too common in good work to put an excess of blanket into the tympans, to lessen the pull for the purpose of easing the pressmen’s arms, and to enable them to be more expeditious: the consequence is, that the impression will show more than the surface of the types or engraving; and thus what is gained in ease and expedition, is more than counterbalanced by the imperfect and rough impression that is produced. See Fine Presswork, and Engravings on Wood.

An old pressman, who was a good workman, gave me the following directions for making ready a form:—

“In making ready, I will only speak of a form of fine work; if a pressman can do that, he surely can make common work ready.

“Lay the form on the stone, centrically under the platen; quoin it all round; fold the tympan sheet according to the form laid on the press; lay it even on the form, and stretch it as much as it will bear; pull it, for the purpose of attaching it to the tympan; paste it all round to the tympan, at the same time keep stretching it; screw on the points; make them fall in the channel of the short cross; make good register with white paper, whether the form be whole or half sheet work.

“This is one of the good old customs, and the best that I know of; because the pressman is sure to have the points centrical; he perceives whether all the furniture be put in right or wrong, even to a single scale-board: in leaded matter, which should be line upon line, he ascertains whether the form be locked up evenly or not, and whether the leads be all put in right; also, whether the pages that begin chapters, or other divisions of the work, have the proper whites; he can likewise discover if any of the pages be made up too long, or too short: any of these errors, that may have occurred, must be amended in the white paper form, otherwise the reiteration will have the same faults, in order to make register. On fine work, I make ready the white paper form of a sheet in the same manner as I do a half sheet, on purpose to discover those errors, by which process I gain more time in making ready the reiteration than I lost in the white paper form.

“For fine work, use the finest cloth that can be procured, and not thick flannel blanket: if the form be light, one thin cloth blanket will be sufficient; and if it be very light, that is to say open leaded matter, sheets of paper are preferable to either flannel or cloth in the tympans. Be sure to have one sheet of stout paper, which will cover all the parchment, in the inside of the outer tympan. Pull a dry even sheet of paper; look carefully on the back of the impression; if it be not equally even, the light parts must be overlaid with tissue paper, or India paper; if some parts be very heavy, cut or tear out the heavy parts. The overlays should be pasted only slightly on the impression sheet, in case any of them should have to be taken off; paste the four corners of this sheet upon the thick sheet; let the overlays be uppermost, that you may see them; then pull another impression sheet, with the first in the tympans, and if the impression still be not even, overlay the first impression sheet again; and continue pulling impression sheets, and overlaying the first impression sheet, until you have an even and regular impression on all parts.

“As you go on with the form, if any of the overlays require to be taken off, do so; if bits are required to be taken out, or rubbed off, the tympan sheet, it must be done. In some works the outer tympan cannot be too dry, but the pressman must be the judge of this, according to the work he has to do.

“Having a good black ink well brayed on the surface of the ink block, he takes a small quantity on the balls, and distributes it well; he takes time to beat the form well and carefully, and then pulls a sheet of the right paper, dwells on the pull, or keeps down the bar a short time by means of a catch or hook, in order to make the paper take the ink clean off the types, and look a clear black upon the paper. The impression must not be too deep, as nothing must appear but the shape of the face of good types. If the impression be too deep, or too much ink on the form, more than the real shape will appear, and the work will not be fine; but if the work be fine, he goes on gently and regularly until the white paper be off. He then lays on the reiteration form; and having the overlays ready that he made before, he has very little trouble in making it ready: he makes such good register, that line falls upon line. After the reiteration is off, if he does not go on with the same work, or work of a similar size and imposition, he carefully puts by the tympan blankets, cloths, or tympan paper, and overlays, till they are again wanted for the same work. All other works must have their own overlays made purposely for them.

“After the first overlays are made for their respective works, there is not so much trouble in making ready the future sheets of the same work as they are put to press; indeed, if the pressman carefully preserves his overlays, tympan paper, or cloths, he seldom has occasion to do more than alter a few of the overlays, as the paper sometimes varies in thickness, which may want a few overlays on the tympan sheet. India paper is the best for this, as it is of a soft and pliable nature, and as it lies on the tympan sheet the pressman can easily perceive if one part of it has a deeper impression than another.

“It is to be observed, that fine work cannot be made upon bad paper, or with old worn types.

“Fine work must not be hurried, as some do when they are paid for it as piecework, and spoil it, in order to make a large bill. How a master stares at this, when the same men could not earn nearly so much on scale work. These are the very men who have despised the establishment, because they could earn more money by attending fewer hours, but not on scale work. How miserable and discontented I have seen them when on scale work, although at the same time they had as much work as they could do. This has been the cause of masters reducing the price of works not paid by the scale. A few shillings per week additional ought to satisfy a man for his extra abilities on fine work.”

MAKING REGISTER.

The act of making the pages and lines fall exactly on the back of each other at press, when any work is perfected. See Register.

MAKE UP.

After a compositor has been setting at random, and commences arranging his matter into pages, it is termed making up. In large pages and letter, in a work where good register is required, I would recommend the compositor to mark on a gauge accurately every line of the page, so that he may regulate his whites in such a manner that line may fall upon line without causing much trouble to the pressman, or to himself; for if it be much out, and the pressmen are on piecework, he will be called on to rectify the errors, and this is better avoided in the making up, as it is attended with but little trouble then, and his work will appear to more advantage in the first instance.

To give the making-up. When a compositor in a companionship has composed his copy to within the quantity of a page of the work, he gives the overplus of the copy, after having completed his own last page, to him who is composing the copy that follows his matter; and he ought to mark on it with a pencil where he has himself concluded, as well as the folio that should follow that of his own last page. This is called giving the making-up.

Malabaric. See Tamoulic.

MALAY.

The Malay is the principal vernacular tongue used by the people who inhabit that vast region and chain of islands comprehended between ninety-three and one hundred and thirty-five degrees of East longitude, a space of about two thousand two hundred and twenty miles; and extending from fourteen degrees North to eleven degrees of South latitude, comprehending twenty-five degrees, about one thousand seven hundred and forty miles. This vast extent of country over which the language is spoken includes the peninsula of Malacca, the islands of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Maccasser, Balee, Cumbava, Sallayer, Bootoon, Booro, Ceram, Pulo Pinang, the Moluccas, and innumerable others.

The Malays have not any proper national character, except that which has been introduced by the Mohammedan priests, who have from time to time settled in the peninsula of Malacca and the adjacent islands; therefore it resembles the Arabic Nishki alphabet, excepting some slight alteration to express a sound which the Arabians had no character to delineate. In conformity then with the principal of the Eastern nations, Arabians, Turks, Persians, &c. they read from the right hand to the left.

The acute accent (´) is always used to mark a very long sound of the vowel over which it is placed; but when inserted after a consonant, it shows that the syllable ends with it.

The Malay Alphabet.

In the above alphabetical arrangement, the second and fourth columns from the right hand are used only when they are connected with a preceding letter; as, banyak بنيق‎, many. Every letter should be connected with that which follows it, except these five: ا‎ aulif, د‎ dal, ر‎ ré, ‎ز‎ zé, and و‎ vau; neither of which can possibly be joined to the following letter.

MALLET.

A wooden hammer, with which to drive the quoins in locking up and unlocking forms, to plane down forms, and for other similar purposes. The general size of the head is 5 inches by 4¼, and 3 inches thick: the hole in the head for the reception of the handle should be bevelled each way from the centre on two sides, so that the handle fitting into the lower part, and being tightly wedged at the upper end, the head can neither fly off, nor can the handle be driven up, when a quoin is struck down with it, or when the planer is struck with the end of it, both which ways of using the mallet are frequent. It is commonly made of beech; but mallets are more durable when the head is made of a piece of tough ash. The head was formerly made round.

MARGIN.

Making margin is the apportioning of the proper distances between the pages of a sheet or form.

This is a most material object in book work; for, if it be not properly done, the appearance of the book, when bound, will be injured; as the binder will be obliged either to reduce the size of the book, in order to make the edges smooth, or else he will have to leave many raw edges of paper.

The spaces between the pages should be such, that, when the book is bound and cut, the page of printing should be very nearly in the middle of the page of paper.

Convenience and custom have familiarised us to the printed page being a little higher than the middle of the leaf, and to its having a little more margin at the fore edge than in the back.

The first of these circumstances may be accounted for, by the head, in all sizes except folio, being at the fold of the paper, which admits of the bookbinder cutting it smooth by taking off a very narrow shaving, so as to reduce the size but a mere trifle; while the bottom of the page lying towards the raw edge of the paper, which is irregular, and which often varies considerably from being cater-cornered—machine-made paper also varies greatly in the size of the sheets, being cut up irregularly; and paper made at different times, and by different makers, which is often used in the same volume, and which likewise varies in size—all combined, render it necessary to allow a little more margin at the foot of the page and at the fore edge than at the head and in the back; for these variations in the paper equally affect the fore edge and the foot: but the head, the back, and the gutter, being folded, remain uniformly the same, however much the paper may vary.

It is always presumed that the backing of the book in binding, takes up as much of the margin as is cut off the fore edge, so as to make them both equal.

Having premised these explanatory observations, I shall proceed to describe, in as clear and distinct a manner as I am able, the manner of ascertaining the proper spaces between the pages, for the different sizes of books, in the simplest way that is known, and as it is now generally practised; for the division of the margin by compasses is obsolete.

To facilitate the operation, it will be necessary to keep in mind the observation I made in the article Imposing, that, “when we arrive at a great number of pages in a sheet, they resolve themselves into the same order as quartos, octavos, and duodecimos,” as a recollection of this will tend to simplify the process, and, if the person who has to perform it be not well experienced, it may prevent him from getting confused, by keeping him to a small part of the form, instead of leaving him to attempt doing all at once.

After the pages have been laid upon the imposing stone, and the chases put over them, the first thing to be done is to get a sheet of the proper paper of the work, wet, and to fold it as exactly as possible to the size in which the work is intended to be printed.

If the paper for the work has not been sent in, then a sheet of the same size may be taken from the paper of some other work that is in progress, which will be found to be sufficiently near, inasmuch as a scaleboard or two in the backs and heads, more or less, will make it right; or the first sheet may be imposed temporarily with furniture out of the drawer.

I must here caution the compositor, or the person who has this business to perform, never to cut his furniture till he is certain of the proper distance required between the pages.

To ascertain this distance, take short pieces of furniture out of the drawer, or quotations, or both, and quadrats or reglets to fill up the interspace, between two pages; then push the pages close up to them, and when you have got the right distance between the pages, you can ascertain what furniture will be of the exact width, by trying the ends of different pieces, always measuring from the edges of the types themselves, and not within the page cords.

We will now proceed with making margin, commencing with folio, and proceeding through the various sizes, at least through so many as may be necessary to elucidate the subject.

Folio.—Having folded a sheet of the intended paper exactly in the middle, place the edge of the paper even upon the outer edge of the first page, and move the adjoining page to it till the fold in the paper will lie about half an inch upon it, when the folded sheet is laid upon the face of the first page; the space between the pages on either side of the cross is then to be filled up with furniture, using one piece only on each side where it is practicable, and where there is no reason to the contrary, in order to prevent mistakes in re-imposing. This space, with the addition of one or two scaleboards on each side of the cross, which are to assist in making register at press, will be sufficiently near for a demy folio, where the page is of a fair dimension; but if the page be very large, or if it be a smaller sized paper than demy, I would not allow the back fold of the paper to lie quite so much over the adjoining page, but would lessen it in proportion to the size of the page or paper; if it be very large paper and a corresponding margin, I would allow a little more proportionably; for it is to be observed, that the more the fold of the paper lies over the edge of the adjoining page, the more fore edge is given at the margin than in the back.

The margin for the head of a folio is arranged at press.

After the scaleboards have been put in, the page cords taken off, and the pages pushed up close to the furniture, you should try it again, to see that it is correct. It is a good plan to take a slip of paper, and cut it to a length equal to the width of the back, then to fold it even in the middle so as to make a distinct crease, to open it again and lay it in the back, so that the crease shall be exactly in the middle of the back; then to open out the sheet of paper, and lay it upon the form, with the crease in its middle upon the crease in the slip of paper; the margin in the back may then be compared with the margin in the fore edge as well as if the sheet were printed, and it may be altered if thought necessary by a scaleboard more or less.

If two jobs, that are to be cut up, are worked together, it is usual to impose them so that the margin shall be equal on both sides; to effect this, fold the paper exactly in the middle, and laying it folded upon the left hand page with the edge of the paper even with the edge of the page of types, bring the other page to it till the left hand side fairly touches the fold of the paper; this is termed being out and out; and when the paper is cut evenly in two, after having been printed, the side margins will be found to be equal.

Quarto.—Fold a sheet of paper exactly into quarto; then lay it, thus folded, upon the first page, the fore edge of the paper being even with the left hand edge of the types; bring the adjoining page towards the first page till the fold in the paper lies upon the left hand side of it about as much as a Double Pica body; this will make the back about right: then place the lower edge of the paper even with the foot of the page, and bring the heads of the pages which adjoin at that part towards each other till the fold in the paper covers the head line, and barely the first line of matter; this will make the head right. Then fit the furniture into the spaces; add a scaleboard or two, as the case will admit; and, after cutting and folding slips of paper and laying them in the back and head, open out the sheet of paper, laying the folds in the paper exactly over the folds in the slips, and it will be perceived how the margin is to be for all the pages.

Before I proceed to octavo, it will be necessary to observe, that in all sizes except folio and quarto, if there be not enough in the backs, the raw edge of the paper in the front margin will project beyond the folded margin, and this in proportion to the deficiency in the back; the same will take place in the length in duodecimo, and in smaller sizes where there are offcuts, if there be not enough at the foot of the pages whence the offcut is taken: the effect produced by these deficiencies is, that the binder is obliged to reduce the size of the book both in length and width, when cutting, in order to make the edges smooth.

The French allow the raw edge of the paper in the front to extend considerably beyond the folded edge; and also at the foot in duodecimos: in England we endeavour to give the book the fullest size that the paper will permit, and suffer the raw edge of the front margin to project but a very little beyond the folded edge, to allow for any discrepancy in the size or shape of the paper.

Octavo.—Fold a sheet of paper into octavo, and lay it, thus folded, upon the first page, the fore edge of the paper even with the outer edge of the types: then bring the adjoining page towards it till the other side of the octavo paper lies over the left hand side of this page about a Pica; this will give the width of the gutter: then open the paper out a fold, into quarto, and laying it upon the two pages, bring the third page on the right hand sufficiently near for the right hand side of the paper to lie upon the left hand side of the page about a Long Primer body; this will give the width of the back: then fold the paper up again, and laying it upon the first page, with the foot of the paper even with the direction line, bring the head of the page above it so near that the top of the octavo paper will cover the head line and barely also the first line of matter; this will give the space at the head: then put into all the spaces on one side of the long cross, and into the head, small pieces of furniture from the drawer, or quotations, which are generally used where they will fit, or quadrats, making both the gutters alike, and push the pages up close; cut the slips of paper as before, and fold them; lay them in the gutters, head and back, and open the sheet of paper to its full size; lay it with the crease of the middle fold exactly upon the crease of the slip of paper in the back, and if the margin be right the creases between the other pages will fall exactly upon the creases in the slips of paper laid in the gutters; if they do not, the space in the back must be increased or diminished till they do, when the margin will be right; the furniture may then be cut, and a scaleboard inserted next the crosses at the backs and heads in all the quarters.

Duodecimo.—After folding a sheet of paper exactly into 12mo., proceed as in octavo for the gutter, but let the fold lie rather less over the edge of the adjoining page than a Pica; proceed in the same manner for the back, but that the paper lie on the third page barely a Long Primer body will be sufficient; the fold in the head will just cover the top line of matter in the adjoining page above it, as in octavo, but the pieces of furniture put in there are called bolts. The offcut is now to be considered—this is always imposed on the outside of the short cross, and the back and gutters are the same as those in the other part of the sheet; for the head of the offcut, the space between the running title, or, where there is no running title, the headline, and the middle of the groove in the short cross, must be exactly half the width of the bolts; for as register is made at this part, and the points fall into the groove and there make point holes, the binder folds to these holes, and takes off the offcut in accordance: thus when the sheet is folded, the offcut inserted, and knocked-up, the head lines of the offcut ought to range with the head lines of the other pages, and this should always be kept in view by the printer; the space between the bottom of the other pages and the middle of the groove in the short cross, should be within a Pica of the outer margin at the feet of the pages, which will allow for any little variation in the size of the paper, and not affect the size of the book in cutting the edges: when these distances are thus arranged, put short bits of furniture, quotations, &c., as before directed, between the pages, in the gutters and back in one row, and in the head and both sides of the short cross in another row lengthways, and push the pages of both these rows close up: cut the slips of paper and fold them for the gutters and the back, as also for the bolts: then open out the sheet of paper, and lay the middle crease in it exactly upon the crease in the slip of paper laid in the back; and if the side margin is right, the creases in the sheet of paper between the other pages will fall upon the creases in the slips of paper laid in the gutters; if they do not, the space in the back must be altered till they do: then try it the other way, by laying the crease in the sheet of paper upon the crease in the slip laid in the bolt, and if the crease of the offcut falls exactly in the middle of the groove in the short cross, it is right; if it does not, the space at the feet of the pages next the cross must be altered till it does: it being presumed that the gutters and bolts are right, the only places at which to alter are the back, and the space at the feet of the pages adjoining the offcut; a scaleboard or two, as may be required, must be put into all the quarters next the crosses.

In Duodecimo Music way, the pages are reversed in shape, being so wide as for two of them to occupy the width of the sheet, and so short as to have six in the depth; in this case there are no backs, technically so called, but only gutters; but as the long cross comes between the pages, they must be treated as backs, in the same manner as in folio, and the fold of the paper must be allowed to lie more over the side of the adjoining page, as was described in making margin for folio; if the page be very wide, less than half an inch; if it be narrow, and a large margin, it may be a little more; the head margins or bolts are three in depth, and may be ascertained in the same manner precisely as for octavos or common twelves, which, being done, the foot margins must be ascertained; these, being two, may have a Pica body each less than the outer foot margins, to allow for any inequality in the size of the paper, or in laying on the white paper at press; this will be done by folding the sheet of paper exactly in three portions across it, and extending the pages till one of these portions covers the two outer pages with the gutter, and lies over the third about a Pica body; when this has been performed at one end, repeat the same process at the other end of the form. The margin may then be tried in the manner before described, and any necessary alteration must be made in the space at the feet of the pages, care being taken that both spaces are equal.

In Long Duodecimo, the pages are the same in size as in the preceding, only that they exchange the length for width, and the width for length; the manner of making margin is the same for this size as for the last; the only difference between them being one of words—that which was the gutter in the other being the head in this; and what was the head or bolt, and the foot margin, now becoming the gutter and the back; the spaces between the pages, for heads, for gutters, and for backs, are ascertained in the manner before described.

As the number of pages multiply in a sheet, so the utility of placing slips of paper, folded in the middle, in the gutters, backs, &c., becomes greater, by enabling the person, whose office it is, to know readily the middle of each space when he tries the whole margin with the sheet opened out; to some this may appear unnecessarily minute, but I hold that whatever method tends to facilitate an operation, and enables a person to perform it more correctly, is useful.

Sixteens.—After having described so fully the manner of folding the paper, and ascertaining the spaces between the pages for the gutters, the heads, and the backs, which are required for quartos, octavos, and duodecimos, it appears unnecessary to extend this article by repeating the same thing in every size. For sixteens, fold a quarter of a sheet of paper exactly in four; pursue the foregoing direction for ascertaining the width of the gutter, the back, and the head, in one quarter of the form, and having made these right, arrange the remainder of the form in the same manner, always trying all the pages by the whole sheet opened out, and rectifying any thing wrong by adding or diminishing in the backs, and similarly at the feet of the pages next the short cross.

The greater the number of pages in a sheet, the smaller in proportion does the margin become: it must therefore be evident, that the folded paper should lie proportionably less over the edge of the adjoining page, both for gutter and for back, as the number of pages increases; for as a folio may require the page to be half an inch nearer the back than the fore edge, an eighteens may not require it to be more than a Long Primer; and so in proportion with respect to the size of the page and of the margin.

Eighteens.—A sheet of eighteens is the same as three half sheets of twelves imposed together: there are two backs and three gutters in each form: the other way of the chase it is three pages in depth, having bolts and an offcut the same as twelves; and the process is the same as when making margin for twelves, only ascertaining the first gutter and back by one third of the sheet of paper the long way, instead of one half of it the narrow way: having made the six pages on the left hand of the form right, make the remaining twelve pages like them, and then try the whole with the sheet of paper opened out; the creases in the folds should fall exactly in the middle of the gutters and backs; but as the offcut is not imposed on the side of the short cross with the groove in it, the crease for the offcut should be exactly half the width of the bolt from the running title or headline, or it should fall in the middle of the long cross.

I wish here to impress upon the mind of the person who is making margin, never to attempt doing so with the whole form at once; for if he does, it is more than probable that he will get wrong, cause himself additional trouble, and frequently waste furniture; but let him get one portion right, then make a range of pages through the form one way the same, and then another the contrary way, and afterwards try them with the sheet of paper opened out, when any little variation that may occur will be easily remedied before he cuts the furniture.

Twenties.—A form of this size has four pages in width, and five in length; in width the margin will be made in the same manner as for twelves; in the length there are two heads or bolts, which will be also ascertained as for twelves; the space between the feet of the pages must be out and out, except about a Pica body; and the offcut must be treated the same as for a form of twelves or eighteens.

Twenty-fours.—The side margin will be ascertained just as for eighteens, there being the same number of pages in width; and the head and foot margin as for sixteens; the difference in the size of the pages not affecting the principle of making margin.

Long Twenty-fours.—A form of this size is similar to a sheet of twelves imposed in one chase, the width of the pages being the longest way of the paper: the method of making margin for it will be similar to that for twelves or eighteens.

Square Twenty-fours.—The difference between this size and twenty-fours is, that the width of the pages occupy the sheet the longest way; the margin will be made in the same manner.

Thirty-twos.—One quarter of a form of thirty-twos is similar to a form of octavo; and the margin may be made by folding a quarter of a sheet of paper, and arranging the pages of a quarter of the form only in the first instance: then place the others at the same relative distances, and try the whole with the sheet of paper opened out, before cutting the furniture.

There is no variation in any principle of making margin as to the remaining sizes; and if I were to go into detail for each, it would be but a repetition of the method of ascertaining the width of the gutters, backs, heads or bolts, and of the spaces at the feet of the pages where they either cut up, or fold, at that part, which I think unnecessary; for when a person is competent to make margin correctly for an octavo, a twelves, and an eighteens, he will find no difficulty with respect to the other sizes.

Wherever a half sheet is imposed, or two half sheets to work together, the middle margin, where the sheet is cut in two, should always be made out and out, that both the fore edges may be equal.

When the margin to the first sheet of a work has been made, and the quoins tightened with the fingers, a gauge should be cut for the back and head, for the succeeding sheets. See Alteration of Margin.—Gauge.—Imposing.

MARGINAL NOTES,

generally called side notes by printers, are notes at the fore edge of the page, running from top to bottom, or placed opposite the matter to which they refer, when they are short. They are generally of the width of a broad quotation; in historical works, where there is only a date at the top of each page, a narrow quotation is run down the side. They are always used in acts of parliament, and in law books, and contain a short abstract of the clause to which they are affixed, and should be justified to range with the line to which they refer.

It is usual, where marginal notes are not heavy, to economise the metal quotations by using furniture; in this case I would advise the compositor to select pieces of precisely the same width, but of different short lengths, and to cut their ends square; some should extend the length of the page; and when he uses short pieces, that he always put a metal quotation or a justifier next to the note, which will cause the lines to stand more even; he will then not lose so much time in seeking quotations and justifiers, nor will he be blamed for monopolising them, as they are seldom so plentiful in an office as to allow of being lavishly used.

Marks. See Points, and References.

MATHEMATICAL COMBINATIONS.

This is the name given by Messrs. Thorowgood and Besley to a number of ornamental designs for letter-press printing, which they were, in the first instance, the means of introducing into England from Paris, these being the invention and execution of Mons. Derriey, a French artist. In England, they come under the denomination of what are called Flowers; but Messrs. V. & J. Figgins style them Changeable Borders.

The flowers in the English founderies have received little improvement or addition during the last hundred years, and are not remarkable either for their beauty or taste: the consequence is, that they are seldom used, hardly ever indeed in fine works. It is difficult to account for this apathy of our letter founders and artists, for the few improvements that have been introduced, have generally been copied from French patterns.

The borders in question are a great improvement, and will, by exciting emulation, most probably lead to others still greater. They are of various patterns, formed of straight lines, as well as of diversified curves; the corners are also formed of angles and curves, so that they may be combined into an almost innumerable variety of forms; in addition, there are many detached tasteful pieces, which, when judiciously used, will add greatly to the effect; but unless the workman possess judgment with some taste, it is doubtful whether he will be able to produce a border, or any other subject, that will be gratifying to the eye.