A Grammar of Colloquial Chinese, as Exhibited in the Shanghai Dialect

k. only, alone are represented by tseh, tók, tan, tan‘ and forms into which they enter.

• 只得一眼 tseh tuh ih ’ngan, only a little.
• 獨一干 tók ih kûn, only one.
• 獨干子 tók kûn ’tsz, alone.
• 勿但一個 veh dan‘ ih kú‘, not only one.
• 惟獨兩個人 ví‘ dóh ’liáng kú‘ niun, only two men.
• 勿獨之一個 veh dók tsz ih kú‘, not only one.
• 一干子 ih kûn ’tsz, alone.
• 單單一個 tan tan ih kú‘, a single one.
• 不過一個 pih (should be peh) kú‘ ih kú‘, only one.
• 獨獨哩我會做 tóh dóh ’lí ’ngú wé‘ tsú‘, only I can do it.

Obs. i. Tan, is also an adjective, as in the question, 花單個呢雙個 hwó tan kú‘ ní song kú‘, is the flower single or double? Tóh and tan‘ are both conjunctions, when joined to ’zz, as 但是, 獨是 tan‘ ’zz, tóh ’zz, but.

Obs. ii. The numeral adverbs once, twice, etc. translated by 一次 ih t’sz‘, etc. may be seen in section 4. on auxiliary substantives, Art. 163.

Negative and Affirmative. 268. One of the most common negative particles is 嘸 m, to which 沒 meh, the same in meaning is frequently appended. 嘸 m is properly a verb not to have.

• 嘸啥事體 m sá‘ zz‘ t’í, it is nothing.
• 嘸形嘸踪 m yung tsóng, there is no trace of him.
• 嘸沒啥話頭 m meh sá‘ wó‘ deu, there is nothing to say.
• 嘸憂嘸慮 m yeu m lü‘, having no grief or care.

269. The literary word that corresponds to this particle is 無 vú, which is also in common use in colloquial phrases derived from the books or formed on book models.

• 無財無勢 vú dzé vú sz‘, having no riches or influence.
• 無親無戚 vú t’sing vú t’sih, having no relations.
• 無冬無夏 vú tóng vú ’yá, having neither winter nor summer.

270 The negative particle in most general use is 勿 veh. It is not prohibitive as in the books, but simply denies like 不 peh in mandarin.

• 勿會度日 veh wé‘ dú‘ nyih, I cannot live on.
• 勿三勿四 veh san veh sz‘, neither this nor that.
• 勿聲勿嚮 veh sung veh ’h’iáng, he said nothing.
• 勿薦拉儂 veh tsíen‘ ’lá nóng‘, I shall not recommend him to you.
• 勿是, 勿個 veh ’zz, veh kú‘, it is not so (or veh alone).

271. The particles 惟 ví, 不 peh and 非 fí, are used in a few combinations.

• 惟獨 ví dóh, only.
• 惟我一人 ví ’ngú ih zun, only I.
• 不止一人 peh ’tsz ih zun, not one man only.
• 不知下落 peh tsz ’yá loh, do not know where he is.
• 眼不能見 ’ngan peh nung kíen‘, not to be seen.
• 非獨之我 fí dók tsz ’ngú, not only I.

272. The simplest affirmative is 是 ’zz; certain auxiliary particles are often appended or prefixed.

• 是個, 是拉個 ’zz kú‘, ’zz ’lá kú‘, it is so.
• 就是, 是者 dzieu‘ ’zz, ’zz ’tsé, ib.

273. When some quality is affirmed, an adjective of opposite meaning, with the negative particle prefixed, is often employed.

• 勿孬 veh k’ieu, that is good.
• 倒勿對 ’tau veh té‘, but that is wrong.
• 勿差 veh t’só, you are right.

274. The emphasis of positive certainty is conveyed by phrases such as tsun tsung‘, seh zé‘, etc., and the double negation 無非 prefixed to the proposition affirmed.

• 眞正嘸沒 tsun tsung‘ m meh, certainly there is none.
• 畢竟勿曾到 pih kiung‘ veh zung tau‘, certainly he has not come.
• 實在有個 seh zé ’yeu kú‘, there certainly is.
• 斷斷乎是個 tön‘ tön‘ ú ’zz kú‘, it certainly is so.
• 果然勿差 ’kú zen veh t’só, it is certainly right.

Obs. The interrogative final mó, is often used to express the same sense with these words, 小囝蠻麽 ’siau nön man mó, the boys are wild indeed.

275. Some phrases imply a moral certainty or necessity (must), and with the negative, the absence of that necessity (need not).

• 柴總有個 zá ’tsóng ’yeu kú‘, there must be fire wood.
• 銀子一定有 niung ’tsz ih ding‘ ’yeu, there must be silver.
• 總要解說個 ’tsóng yau‘ ’ká seh kú‘, you must explain it.
• 必定要去 pih ding‘ yau‘ k’i‘, you must go.
• 板定要來者 ’pan ding‘ yau‘ lé ’tsé, he must necessarily come.
• 板要做個 ’pan yau‘ tsu‘ kú‘, you must do it.
• 善终有善報 ’zén tsóng ’yeu ’zén pau‘, virtue will surely have a good reward.
• 做生意總要用心 tsú‘ sang i‘ ’tsóng yau‘ yúng‘ sing, in transacting business you must apply the mind.

276. There are several phrases to express that the thing affirmed is naturally so, and that nothing else ought to be expected.

• 本來什蓋能 ’pun lé seh ké‘ nung, it is originally so.
• 本者來自家要來 ’pun ’tsé lé zz‘ ka yau‘ lé, he originally wished to come himself.
• 自然者 zz‘ zén ’tsé, as might be expected.
• 自然而然 zz‘ zén rh zén, spontaneously.
• 原來嘸啥 niön lé m sá‘, it is really nothing.
• 本者乎勿肯 ’pun ’tsé ú veh ’k’ung, by nature unwilling.
• 良心本底子有個 liáng sing ’pun ’tí ’tsz ’yeu ku‘, conscience belongs to us by nature.

277. Different words are usually appropriated to the affirmative and negative forms of assertions. Thus (1) absolute certainty in the negative is expressed by,—

• 並勿是 ping‘ veh ’zz, certainly it is not.
• 决勿好做 kiöh veh ’hau tsu‘, it ought surely not to be done.
• 切勿可以 t’sih veh ’k’ó ’í, you certainly may not.

(2). The denial of necessity (need not) is conveyed in such expressions as the following.

• 勿必得去 veh pih tuh ’k’í, you need not go.
• 勿必多 veh pih tú, do not need many.

Obs. The Imperative also, as in 勿要去 veh yau‘ k’í‘, do not go; 去 末者 k’í‘ meh ’tsé, go has distinct auxiliary words for the affirmative and negative forms.

278. There are some adverbs appropriated to express affirmative and negative propositions in the interrogative form.

Obs. ii. For similar groups of nouns, with the points of the compass, see Art. 152.

282. The adjectives ’tsú yeu‘, right and left, form some groups.

• 右邊, 右半爿, yeu‘ píen, yeu‘ pén‘ ban, on the right-hand.
• 左邊, 左半爿, tsí‘ (ú) píen, tsí‘ pén‘ ban, on the left-hand.

283. The adverbs of place and direction that remain are few.

• 週圍, 四週圍, tseu wé, sz‘ tseu wé, all round.
• 當中 tong tsóng, in the middle.
• 空中 k’óng tsóng, in the air.
• 橫肚裏 wáng ’tú ’lí, obliquely.
• 射角 dzák kok, obliquely.
• 對直 té‘ dzuh, straight before.
• 那裏那裏堂 ’á ’lí, ’á ’lí dong, where?
• 各處, 處處, 到處, kok t’sû‘, t’sû‘ t’sû‘, tau‘ t’sû‘, everywhere.
• 各道落處 kok tau‘ lok t’sû‘, everywhere.

284. Wáng and ’zû form with verbs many groups of four characters, in which the action is said to be done in various ways, literally across and perpendicularly.

• 橫做𥪡做 wáng tsú‘ ’zû tsú‘, do this and that.
• 橫勿是𥪡勿是 wáng veh ’zz, ’zû veh ’zz, wrong in this and in that.

Obs. In weaving, the cross thread is 芉紗 ü‘ só, the other 經紗 kiung só; here ü‘ is used for wei 緯.

285. The adverbs in and out, up and down, here and there, etc. are translated in Chinese by repeated verbs.

• 飛進飛出 fí tsing‘ fí t’seh, fly in and out.
• 跳上跳下 t’iau‘ ’zong t’iau‘ ’au, jump up and down.
• 搖來搖去 yau lé yau k’í‘, row about.

Adverbs of time. 286. The following are the primitive adverbs of time employed in the dialect.

• 曾 zung, already; 勿曾 veh zung, not yet.
• 向 h’iáng‘, 一向 ih h’iáng‘, hitherto; (it embraces the whole of the past time), 向來 h’iáng‘ lé, 向係 h’iáng‘ í‘, ib.
• 已 ’í, already; e.g. 已經 ’í kiung, already.
• 昨 zoh (zóh, zog), in 昨日 zoh nyih, yesterday.
• 先 síen, first; 第個先要做 tí‘ kú‘ síen yau‘ tsú‘, this must be done first.
• 暴 pau‘, at first; e.g. 暴時 pau‘ zz, at first; 暴時間 pau‘ zz kan, ib.
• 預 ü‘, beforehand; 預先防備 ü‘ síen bong bé‘, guard against beforehand. (防 guard against; m. fang; s.r. vong).
• 初 t’sú, at first, is only found as an adverb in the phrase 當初 tong t’sú, formerly.
• 今 kiun, now; e.g. 目今 mók kiun, 刻今 k’uk kiun, 現今 híen‘ kiun, now; 今朝 kiun tsau, to-day; 今曰 kiun nyih, ib.; 今月 kiun niöh, this month; 今年 kiun níen, this year.
• 難 nan, now; 難故歇 nan kú‘ h’ih, at the present moment; 難朝後 nan dzau ’eu, from this time forward; 難下來 nan ’au lé, ib.; 難末 nan meh, then.
• 正 tsung‘, (or 淮 ’tsung) just; 正勒拉 tsung‘ leh ’lá, just while; 貼正 t’ih (or t’eh) tsung‘, just at the moment.
• 現 híen‘ now; 現在 híen‘ dzé‘, now; 現時 híen‘ zz, ib.
• 暫 dzan‘, temporarily; e.g. 暫時 dzan‘ zz, for a short time; 暫為 dzan‘ we‘, ib.
• 將 tsiáng, about to be; 將來 tsiáng lé, it will happen that.
• 卽 tsiuk (tsih) just; 隨卽 zûe tsiuk, just; 卽刻 tsih k’uh, ib. 卽鉛 tsih k’an, ib.
• 再 tsé‘, again; 再會 tsé‘ wé‘, we shall meet again.
• 鉛 k’an just; 鉛鉛 k’an k’an ib.; 鉛起始 k’an ’k‘í ’sz, at the beginning.
• 又 í‘, 又來者 í‘ lé ’tsé, come again.
• 還 wan, still; 還要來 wan yau‘ lé, come again.
• 就 dzieu‘, immediately; 就轉來 dzieu‘ ’tsén lé, return directly 就此 dzieu‘ ’t’sz, immediately.
• 一 ih followed by 就 dzieu‘ the moment that; 一睏就覺 ih k’wun‘ dzieu‘ kau‘, the moment he went to sleep he awoke.

Obs. i. Of these words, only 難, 將, 再, 又, 還, 就, nan, tsiáng, tsé‘, í‘, wan, dzieu‘, are separable from the groups in which they are found. 未 as in 未哩 mí‘ ’lí, not yet, is a negative adverb of time.

Obs. ii. All these adverbs are book words, except pau‘, nan, and k’an.

287. The demonstrative pronouns 第, 伊, 故, tí‘, í, kú‘, and some other words combine with the substantives 歇, 刻, 時, h’ih, k’uh, zz, a short time, to form adverbs of time.

• 第歇故歇 tí‘ h’ih, kú‘ h’ih, at this moment.
• 故歇頭上 kú‘ h’ih deu long‘, at that time.
• 伊歇頭上 í h’ih deu long‘, ib.
• 一時頭上 ih zz deu long‘, all at once.
• 立刻 lih k’uh, immediately.
• 立時立刻 lih zz lih k’uh, ib.
• 立時三刻 lih zz san k’uh, ib.

歇 h’ih, also helps to form 大歇 tá h’ih, 爽歇 zong h’ih, after a little time; 少歇 ’sau h’ih, ib.

288. Several adjectives and prepositions are borrowed to form compound adverbs of time.

a. 明 ming, bright. 明朝 ming tsau, to-morrow; 明日 ming nyih, ib.; 明天 ming t’íen, ib.; 明年 ming níen, next year.

b. 早 ’tsau, early; 早早 ’tsau ’tsau, early; 老早 ’lau ’tsau, early.

c. 古 ’kú ancient. 古時間 ’kú zz kan, in ancient times; 古時節 ’kú zz tsih, ib.; 古來 ’kú lé, from ancient times.

d. 新 sing, new. 新年 sing níen, new year; 從新 dzóng sing, afresh.

e. 近 ’kiun, near. 近年 ’kiun níen, of late years; 近時 ’kiun zz, lately; 近來 ’kiun lé, ib. 近今 ’kiun kiun, ib. 近世 ’kiun sz‘, in modern times.

f. 舊 ’kieu, old. 舊年 ’kieu níen, last year; 仍舊 zung ’gieu, as before; 照舊 tsau‘ ’gieu, ib. 依舊 í‘ ’gieu, ib.

g. 常 dzáng, constant. 常庄 dzáng tsong, 打常 ’táng dzáng, 常常 dzáng dzáng 不常 peh dzáng, always; 常時 dzáng zz, sometimes; 日常 nyih dzáng, daily.

h. 前 zíen, former. 前日子 zíen nyih ’tsz, day before yesterday; 目前 móh zíen, now. 前年 zíen níen, year before last. 從前 dzóng zíen, formerly. 以前 ’í zíen, before; 前代 zíen dé‘, the former dynasty. 前朝 zíen zau, ib.; 前世 zíen sz‘, in a former life.

i. 後 ’heu, after. 後來 ’heu lé, 以後 ’í heu‘, after; 後月 ’heu niöh, next month; 後年 ’heu níen, year after next; 後日 ’heu nyih, day after to-morrow.

j. 下 ’hau, 目下 móh ’hau, at present.

k. 多 tú, 日多 nyih tú, daily.

Obs. Zien deu, ’heu deu, before, after, and the cognate adverbs of place are used also for time.

289. Sometimes verbs take the place of what in English are adverbs. They are 來, 過, 歇, 隔 lé, kú‘, h’ih, káh.

• 自古以來 zz‘ ’kú ’í lé, from ancient times till now.
• 周朝以來 Tseu dzau ’í lé, from the Cheú dynasty till now.
• 歇之兩日 h’ih tsz ’liáng nyih, after two days.
• 隔之幾十年 kák tsz ’kí zeh níen, after several tens of years.
• 再過一月 tsé‘ kú‘ ih niöh, after another month.

290. There are some provincial adverbs of time, whose etymology is uncertain, or at least not referable to words of time.

• 做慣 tsok (kwan‘) kûn‘, constantly (in the habit of).
• 只管 tseh ’kwén, ib. or my only concern is, etc. (m.)
• 冷陌生頭 ’láng mák sáng deu, suddenly.
• 難板 nan ’pan, seldom (difficult to fix).

291. The adjective pronouns combine with substantives of time to form common phrases, which are often used as adverbs.

• 多 tá, several; 多歇 tá h’ih, after a little time; 多日 tá nyih, after some days; 多年 tá níen, after some years; 多時 tá zz, a considerable time (多 tú in this sense is generally pronounced tá.)
• 幾 ’kí, several; 連幾日 líen ’kí nyih, during several days.
• 多 tú, many; 介多 ká‘ tú, mutually.
• 逐 dzóh, each; 日逐 nyih dzóh, daily; 逐點逐點高 dzók ’tíen dzók ’tíen kau, gradually growing higher.

292. Substantives of time, when repeated, are adverbs.

• 日日 nyih nyih, daily.
• 年年 níen níen, yearly.
• 時時刻刻 zz zz k’uh k’uh, constantly.
• 歇歇 h’ih h’ih, ib.
• 出出變, 囘囘變 t’seh t’seh pien‘, wé wé pien‘, constantly changing.

Obs. Succession in time is frequently represented in English by repetition of a noun with an adverb inserted. Thus, day by day corresponds to 日日 nyih nyih. Such phrases as year after year, one after another are other examples, and have their Chinese equivalents in the next article.

Order and Succession. 293. Succession of periods of time is represented by repetition, and the intervention of the verb 過 kú‘, pass (English adverb after).

• 一世過一世 ih sz‘ kú‘ ih sz‘, age after age.

294. The particles and, after, by, in one by one, two and two, in rows, etc. are not represented, succession being expressed by mere repetition of the numeral and its particle.

• 一個一個出去者 ih kú‘ ih kú‘ t’seh k’i‘ ’tsé, one after another they went out.
• 要種個一行一行個 yau‘ tsóng‘ kú‘ ih hong ih hong kú‘, plant them in rows.

Obs. For the repetition of verbs, in phrases such as 站一站 dzan‘ ih dzan‘, stand waiting a little; 研一研 níen ih níen, rub a little ink; 冷個冷 ’láng kú‘ ’láng, cool it a little; 調個調 diau kú‘ diau, stir it a little; 淘個淘 dau kú‘ dau, wash it (of rice); 净個净 zing‘ kú‘ zing‘, wash it (of clothes); 我要辨個辨清爽 ’ngú yau‘ bíen‘ kú‘ bíen‘ t’sing ’song, I wish to distinguish clearly; see also Art. 232.

295. Gradual increase by little and little, is expressed by repeating the auxiliary phrases ih ’ngan, ih ’tíen, with the adjective in the centre. When the gradual change is in time, words of time form similar phrases.

• 一眼高一眼 ih ’ngan kau ih ’ngan, to become gradually higher.
• 一點大一點 ih ’tíen dú‘ ih ’tíen, grow gradually greater.
• 一歇大一歇 ih h’ih dú‘ ih h’ih, greater every moment.
• 一日小一日 ih nyih ’siau ih nyih, grow less every day.

296. Many adverbial phrases are formed by verbs and other words. Thus, the adverb when is often supplied by a noun of time following the verb with the connecting particle 個 kú‘.

• 覺個辰光 kau‘ kú‘ zun kwong, when you awake.
• 出門個時候 t’seh mun kú‘ zz heu‘, when on a journey.

297. Never, is expressed by 一向 ih h’iáng‘, with a negative phrase following it.

• 一向勿曾讀書 ih h’iáng‘ veh zung tók sû, I have never gone to school.

298. The questions why? and how? are often asked by verbs with the pronoun what? thus rendering an adverb unnecessary.

• 昨日想啥咾勿來 zóh nyih ’siáng sá‘ lau veh lé, why (thinking of what) did you not come yesterday?.
• 聽之啥咾曉得個 t’ing tsz sá‘ lau ’h’iau tuh kú‘, how (having heard what) do you know?

Adverbs of Similarity and Reciprocity. 299. The adverb 恰 hah, and adjective 像 siáng‘, like, assist in forming several compound phrases in the sense like.

Obs. Together with, is expressed by means of certain adverbs 一淘, ih dau, 一氣 ih k’í‘, following the preposition and its noun. 忒我一氣進 城 t’eh ’ngú ih k’i‘ tsing‘ zung, go with me into the city. v. Art. 140.

301. The primitive adverbs are not repeated, except in one or two instances. It is different with those that are derived. Some examples in addition to these already given are here appended.

• 自自在在 zz‘ zz‘ ’zé ’zé, at ease.
• 活的活的 weh tih weh tih, constantly moving.
• 什蓋什蓋 seh ké‘ seh ké‘, thus.
• 適適意意 suh suh í‘ í‘, comfortably.

Obs. It has been shown that adjectives, and also substantives of time, become adverbs by repetition.

302. Some verbs combine intimately with adverbs, so as to form compound adverbs.

• 加 ká, add, forms yöh ká, 越加; í‘ ká, 又加; kung‘ ká, 更加 still more.
• 發 fah, produce, forms 越發 yöh fah; still more.
• 隨 zûe, follow, 隨時 zûe zz, always; 隨處 zûe t’sû‘, everywhere.

303. It will be seen in the next section, that some words marked as adverbs are also conjunctions. The converse is also true. For some words, such as 越, 且, 如 yöh, ’t’síe, zû regarded in this work as primitive conjunctions, form adverbial phrases.

• 並且勿是 ping‘ ’t’síe veh ’zz, it certainly is not so.
• 如同皇帝能 zû dóng wong tí‘ nung, like the emperor.

304. The foregoing analysis shows that adverbs qualifying verbs, and expressive of place and quantity are for the most part derived. On the other hand, those adverbs that qualify adjectives, and express time are usually primitive. In our own language, the adverbs that qualify affirmations, e.g. assuredly, certainly, etc. are derived, while here they are primitive. The old division of this part of speech by western grammarians into two parts, viz. primitive and derivative, thus appears to be properly applicable to a language, that has been often supposed to present no resemblance in etymological development to the speech of the rest of mankind. The Romans made their adverbs of place out of demonstrative pronouns, and prepositions, in a manner very similar to the Chinese, (e.g. hic here, supra above, etc.) Adjectives with particular terminations supplied them with adverbs of manner, (cito, bene, omnino.) Nunc, jam, are examples of primitive adverbs of time, while the root stá stand, in statim, exactly corresponds to 立 lih, stand, in 立刻 lih k’uh, immediately. It may be added that zén, hú, etc. in Art. 259 form appendages to the root, of the same value as the terminations -ly, -like, to which we are accustomed. What is new, is the extensive use of repetitions, the great number of fixed phrases, and the peculiarities in the laws of grouping.

Section 10. Conjunctions.

305. The primitive conjunctions may be thus classed:—

• a. Connectives, 咾 lau, 也 ’á, and; 且, ’t’siá, 而 rh. and, further.
• b. Adversatives 但 dan‘. Forms like 但是 dan‘ ’zz 獨是 tóh ’zz, but, etc. are compounded of adverbs, verbs, etc.
• c. Illative 故 kú‘, 蓋 ké‘ (keh), therefore.
• d. Causal. 因 yung, 為 wé‘, because.
• e. Conditional. 末 meh, 若 záh, 倘 ’t’ong.
• f. Antithetical, 雖 sûe, 然 zén, 或 wóh, 越 yöh, 也 ’á, 又 i‘.

Obs. The compounds formed by these words, and words and phrases used as conjunctions derived from other parts of speech, will most of them be found in the following articles.

Connectives. 306. The particle that connects words like the English and, is 咾 lau.

• 進咾出 tsing‘ lau t’seh, going in and out.
• 中牲咾窵咾魚 tsóng sáng lau ’tiau lau ng, beasts, bird, and fishes.

Obs. The preposition tah, t’eh, with, often serve the same purpose, e.g. 儂忒我 nóng‘ t’eh ’ngú, you and I; 日頭搭之月 nyih deu tah tsz niöh, the sun and moon.

307. Clauses are connected by 也 ’á and 還 wan. They are also frequently used merely as introductory particles.

• 南京去過之末, 我也要上北京去 Nén kiung k’í‘ kú‘ tsz meh, ’ngú ’á yau‘ ’zong Poh kiung k’í‘, after going to Nanking, I also wish to go to Peking.
• 明朝我也要歸去 ming tsau ’ngú ’á yau‘ kü k’í‘, to-morrow, I wish to go home. (introductory).
• 也要買否 ’á yau‘ ’má ’vá, do you wish to buy?

Obs. i. If the ’á or wan is emphasized it means also. If pronounced without emphasis, it is simply introductory.

Obs. ii. The adverbs dzieu‘, niön, are used as introductory particles to affirmative prepositions: 就是我 dzieu‘ ’zz ’ngú, 原是我 niön ’zz ’ngú, it is I.

308. Another circumstance to be considered, in addition to what has preceded, is introduced 而且 rh ’t’siá, and further 尙且 zong‘ ’t’siá, and what is still more.

• 今朝路勿好跑個而且我脚跑勿動 kiun tsau lú‘ veh ’hau pau‘ kú‘, rh ’t’siá ’ngú kiáh pau‘ veh ’dóng, it is bad walking to-day, and besides I am lame.
• 有個朋友話昨日來, 尙且勿曾來 ’yeu kú‘ báng ’yeu wó‘ zóh nyih lé, zong‘ ’t’siá veh zung lé, a friend told me he would come yesterday, and still he has not yet come. (adverbial).
• 前頭借過歇銅錢, 而且勿曾還哩, 難又要借否 zien deu tsiá‘ kú‘ h’ih dóng díen, rh ’t’siá veh zung wan ’lí, nan í‘ yau‘ tsiá‘ ’vá, you borrowed money before, and further you have not returned it, and do you wish to borrow again? (adverbial).
• 水深而且渾 ’sz sun rh ’t’siá wun, the water is deep and also muddy.

309. A new subject of remark is introduced by 再者 tsé‘ ’tsé, again, to proceed; 還有 wan ’yeu, there is another thing; 那裏曉得 ’á ’lí ’h’iau tuh, meantime; who could have thought it? strange to say!

• 托儂買蒔菇, 再者呌船一隻 t’oh nóng‘ ’má zz kú, tsé‘ ’tsé kiau‘ zén ih tsáh, I commission you to buy fruit, and also to call a boat.
• 還有一樣事體 wan ’yeu ih yáng‘ zz‘ ’t’i, there is another thing I have to say.

Adversatives. 310. But is represented by 但 tan‘ 但是 tan‘ ’zz, 獨是 tóh (g) ’zz; however is 到底 tau‘ ’tí, or 究竟 kieu‘ kiung‘.

Obs. The adverbs of likeness (see Art. 299) are also similarly employed. 好像日頭忒旺, 眼睛勿好對之伊咾看 ’hau ziáng‘ nyih deu t’uh yong‘, ’ngan tsing veh ’hau té‘ tsz í lau k’ön, just as the sun is too bright for our eyes to gaze on him.

Antithetical Conjunctions. 322. Clauses with the particles although, yet, are formed by 雖然 sûe zén and 然而 zén rh, etc.

• 雖然巧個, 然而勿牢實個 sûe zén ’k’iau kú‘, zén rh veh lau zeh kú‘, although clever, he is not trustworthy.
• 好是好個, 到底本事平常 ’hau ’zz ’hau kú‘ tau‘ ’tí ’pun zz‘ bing dzáng, he is well disposed, but his abilities are not great.
• 雖然路遠, 究竟走得到 sûe zén lú‘ ’yön, kieu‘ kiung‘ ’tseu tuh tau‘, although it is a long way, yet I can walk it.

Obs. Although is very frequently omitted, as in the second example.

323. Either,—or are expressed by 或者 wóh ’tsé, 或者 wóh ’tsé, or by 勿是, 就是 veh ’zz — dzieu‘ ’zz.

• 勿是打贏, 就是打敗 veh ’zz ’táng yung, dzieu‘ ’zz ’táng bá‘, you must either conquer, or be vanquished.
• 或在東, 或在西 wóh ’dzé tóng, wóh ’dzé sí, it is either east or west.
• 勿是儂, 就是儂個兄弟 veh ’zz nóng‘, dzieu‘ ’zz nóng‘ kú‘ h’iung dí‘, it is either you or your brother.
• 或是姓張, 或是姓李 wóh ’zz sing‘ tsáng, wóh ’zz sing‘ lí, it must be some one named Cháng or Lí.

324. Neither,—nor are represented both by 也—也 ’á—’á, and by 又—又 í‘—í‘, with a negative.

• 也勿會飛, 也勿會走 ’á veh wé‘ fí, ’á veh wé‘ ’tseu. he can neither fly nor walk.
• 口也勿開, 手也勿動 ’k’eu ’á veh k’é, ’seu ’á veh ’dóng, he neither opens his mouth, nor moves his hands.
• 又勿賤, 又勿貴 í‘ veh giáng, í‘ veh kü‘, it is neither cheap nor dear.

325. When the first clause is interrogative, and the second commences with or, the equivalent form is ní, the interrogative particle at the end of the first clause, and 還是 wan ’zz beginning the second. Sometimes 也 ’á alone is used.

• 明朝要去呢, 還是要待兩日 ming tsau yau‘ k’í‘ ní, wan ’zz yau‘ dé‘ ’liáng nyih, will you go to-morrow, or wait for a few days? (See also Art. 251).

326. Because,—therefore are expressed by 因爲 yung wé‘, or 爲之 wé‘ tsz, in the first clause, and any of the illative particles in the second.

• 因爲勿曾熟哩, 所以還要燒 yung wé‘ veh zung zóh ’lí, ’sú ’í wan yau‘ sau, since it is not yet well done, you must boil it longer.
• 爲之儂勿快活咾, 故此我勿來 wé‘ tsz nóng‘ veh k’á‘ weh lau, kú‘ ’t’sz ’ngú veh lé, because you were displeased, I did not come again.

327. Why—? because—are expressed by any of the adverb forms for why? and the casual conjunctions in the answering clause.

• 爲啥要眠檣因爲要過橋拉 wé‘ sá‘ yau‘ míen dziáng? yung wé‘ yau‘ kú‘ giau ’lá, why do you take down the mast? because there is a bridge to pass.

328. On the one hand, on the other hand, are expressed by ih míen‘ or ih deu repeated.

a. 個 kú‘, besides its use as a numeral particle (Art. 156), as the sign of the possessive (130) and in relative pronoun sentences, also takes its place as a final after a verb, or adjective in any indicative proposition.

• 好個 好拉個 ’hau kú‘, ’hau ’lá kú‘, it is good, well.
• 勿能做個 veh nung tsú‘ kú‘, or veh nung kú‘ tsú‘, I cannot do it.

b. 之 tsz is the sign of the past or past participle, but as will be seen in the first three examples, it is often indicative.

• 前年做之宰相者 zíen níen tsú‘ tsz tsé‘ siáng‘ ’tsé, the year before last, he was prime minister.
• 本地白也會話之 ’pun dí‘ pah ’á wé‘ wó‘ tsz, he can speak in the dialect of this place.
• 明朝要寫好之末者 ming tsau yau‘ ’siá ’hau tsz meh ’tsé, finish writing it to-morrow.
• 做之十年官咾告老者 tsú‘ tsz zeh níen kwén lau kau‘ ’lau ’tsé, after having been in office for ten years, he retired on the plea of old age.

c. 者 ’tsé is the sign of an action completed, or in course of being done, whether expressed by a verb or adjective; also of the imperative.

• 做拉者, 好者 tsú‘ ’lá ’tsé, ’hau ’tsé, it is done, it is right.
• 去拉個者 k’í‘ ’lá kú‘ ’tsé, he is gone.
• 吾拉做者 ngú ’lá tsú‘ ’tsé, I am doing it.

d. 哩 ’lí and 拉 ’lá, are used like ’tsé and kú‘, as finals to any indicative proposition. 拉 ’lá is also a preposition (Art. 256).

• 好哩, 勿好拉哩, 好個哩 ’hau ’lí, veh ’hau ’lá ’lí, ’hau kú‘ ’lí, good, it is not well, it is well.

e. 咾 lau, the particle that connects a string of substantives, occurs at the end of sentences that require something to complete their sense.

• 已經話拉者咾, 有啥再話 ’í kiung wó‘ ’lá ’tsé lau, ’yeu sá‘ tsé‘ wó‘, I have said it, and why should I say it again.

Obs. 𫡄 ná is a final expletive used with 者 ’tsé.

讀者𫡄 tók ’tsé ná, I am reading.

333. The final interrogatives are 呢, 否, 蠻, 麽, ní, ’vá, man‘, mó. Characters are borrowed for ’vá and man‘.

a. 呢 ní is used either at the end of the first clause in an interrogative antithesis, or at the end of a single clause. It is sometimes pronounced ’nian.

• 做呢勿做 tsú‘ ní veh tsú‘, will you do it or not?
• 好勿好呢 ’hau veh ’hau ní, is it right or not?
• 勿懂呢啥 veh ’tóng ní sa‘, do you not understand?
• 物事忒貴個呢 meh zz‘ tuh kü‘ kú‘ ní, are the things too dear?

b. 否 ’vá and 蠻 man‘ are appropriated to direct interrogations, where not antithetical. They are colloquialisms.

• 飯用蠻 van‘ yúng‘ man‘, have you dined?
• 還要再來否 wan yau‘ tsé‘ lé‘ vá, shall you come again?
• 曉得否 ’h’iau tuh ’vá, do you understand?

c. 麽 mó (mau), besides expressing direct and indirect interrogation, also implies a strong affirmative. (Art. 278).

• 第個稀奇個物事有磨 tí‘ kú‘ h’í gí kú‘ meh zz‘ ’yeu mó, is there this remarkable thing?
• 倒勿是十分壞良心麽 ’tau veh ’zz seh vun wá‘ liáng sing mó? is it not most wilfully unconscionable!
• 是否, 是麽 ’zz ’vá, ’zz mó, is it so? indeed it is?
• 第個價錢大麽 tí‘ kú‘ ká‘ díen dú‘ mó, the price of this is great indeed (亦通嗎).

334. The initial interrogatives 豈 ’k’í, how? 幾 ’kí, how many? with 那 ’ná, forming ’á ’lí, 那裏 where? which? and 那能 ’ná nung, how? have already been illustrated among the pronouns and adverbs.

335. The interjections properly so called are such as—

• 噯 é, ah! 噯動勿得個 é ’tóng veh tuh kú‘, ah! you must not do such a thing.
• 呔 t’é, ho! 呸 ’p’é, it is bad.
• 阿唷 ah yóh, alas! oh!
• 㕭 au‘, indicates assent, yes, or I understand. In the first tone, it calls attention or conveys a warning, 當心㕭 tong sing au, be careful and mind what I say.
• 呀 á, 喲 yá, as in 是呀 ’zz á, 是喲 ’zz yáh, it is so.
• 哇 vá, is it not so? 哈 hé, ah!

PART III.
ON SYNTAX.

Section 1. On Government.

Obs. i. If there is a dative and accusative, the latter comes next to the verb. For examples, see Art. 236 and 133.

Obs. ii. Impersonal verbs take a substantive after them as transitive verbs; e.g. 難開花者 nan k’é hwó ’tsé, now the flowers open (lit. open the flowers); 落雨 loh ’ü, it rains (lit. falls rain).

339. Adverbs are placed for the most part before the adjectives and verbs that they qualify.

• 忒認眞 t’uh niung‘ tsun, unnecessarily industrious.
• 廟裏最興 miau‘ ’lí tsûe‘ h’iung‘, in the temple, it is most crowded.
• 此地寫 ’t’sz dí‘ ’siá, write it here.
• 歇兩日再會 h’ih ’liáng nyih tsé‘ wé‘. after a few days, we shall meet again.
• 又是一氣 í ’zz ih k’í‘, that is a different set.

Obs. The adverbs that follow their adjectives, such as 近煞 ’kiun sah, very near, 好極 ’hau giuh, very good, will be found in their places, where the comparison of adjectives and adverbs of quality are treated of.

340. Of the prepositions, some forming the locative case follow their words; the rest inclusive of 在 ’dzé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, 勒裏 leh ’lí, all meaning being at or in, precede their substantives. 勿在鄕下 veh ’dzé h’iáng ’au, not down in the country.

Obs. Prepositions of motion and direction preceding the personal pronouns require a substantive of place to follow. 到我堂來 tau‘ ’ngú dong lé, come to me; 拉㑚堂勿有 ’lá ná‘ dong veh ’yeu, where you come from, there are none. See also Art. 197.

Section 2. Interchange of the Parts of Speech.

341. Under this heading, will be exhibited examples of the manner in which words by a change in position, must be construed as included in parts of speech, different from those to which when alone, they obviously belong. First, there are three principal changes of position, by which adjectives become substantives.

а. Adjectives when they follow a substantive with 個 kú‘ are to be construed as substantives.

• 心裏向個勿好, 總要改正 sing ’lí h’iáng‘ kú‘ veh ’hau, ’tsóng yau‘ ’ké tsung‘, the evil of the heart must be rectified.
• 泰山個高量勿出 t’é‘ san kú‘ kau liáng veh t’seh, the height of T’ai-shan cannot be measured.
• 房間個闊狹勿清爽 vong kan kú‘ k’weh hah veh t’sing ’song, the width of the room, I do not know.
• 吾個相好死者 ngú kú‘ siáng ’hau ’sí ’tsé, my friend is dead.

Obs. i. Compare In English “the theory of the beautiful,” etc.

Obs. ii. Sometimes 處 t’sû‘ is added to the adjective, as also 頭 deu and fah 發, compound substantives are thus formed; cf. Art. 110. The same words also form substantives from verbs.

b. Adjectives are frequently the objects of transitive verbs, and in consequence are necessarily translated in such cases as substantives.

• 學好 hoh ’hau, to grow good (to learn good).
• 講和 ’kong hú, treat for peace.
• 學壞 hoh wá‘, to grow bad.

Obs. These examples differ from compounds, such as 加大 ká dú‘, make larger; 開闊 k’é k’weh, to extend in width (see Art. 219), which in their combined form, constitute transitive verbs with a regimen. These on the other hand contain the verb and its object within them.

• 勿論大咾小, 全是一樣個 veh lun‘ dú‘ lau ’siau, dzén ’zz ih yáng‘ kú‘, without taking account of the great and the small, all are the same.
• 勿要話別人個長短 veh yau‘ wó‘ bih niun kú‘ dzáng ’tön, do not speak of the faults of others.
  Obs. 短處 ’tön t’sû‘ is also used for faults.
• 第條河開多少闊 tí‘ diau hú k’é tú ’sau k’weh, how wide is this river?

Obs. Adjectives with the interrogatives how much? how many? preceding them, the verb being understood, are in common use; e.g. 幾許深淺 ’kí hó‘ sun ’t’síen, how much depth is there? or how deep is it? 多少深 tú ’sau sun ib.; 勿知多少高低 veh tsz tú ’sau kau tí, I do not know how high it is.

c. When one adjective is qualified by another, it becomes a substantive; with this, English usage agrees, as in the following names of colours.

Verb as Substantive. 342. Construing verbs as substantives is common to many languages. The infinitive and gerund forms are used for this purpose, as also the present participle. In Chinese these are all identical, being the root itself.

a. The verb as subject of a proposition with a predicate following (inf. and pres, part.).

• 活命難 weh ming‘ nan, it is hard (predic.) to live. (subj.）
• 會得勝總好個 wé‘ tuk sung‘ ’tsóng ’hau kú‘, to be able to conquer must be a good thing.
• 行篷船走得快個 háng bóng, zén ’tseu tuk k’wá‘ kú‘, by using a sail, the boat will go quickly.
• 國度亂做生意勿便當個 kóh dú‘ lön‘ tsú‘ sáng í‘ veh bíen‘ tong‘ kú‘, the country is disturbed and in consequence, it is hard (pred.) to carry on trade. (subj.)
• 兵勿好咾, 打仗勿見得成功 ping veh ’hau lau, ’t’áng tsáng‘ veh kíen‘ tuh zung kóng‘, the soldiers are bad, and consequently fighting (subj.) is not likely to be successful. (pred.)

b. The verb as subject, with a noun as attribute (in Latin grammar, the genitive of the gerund).

• 種田個家生有鋤頭鐵咾還有多許 tsóng‘ díen kú‘ ká sáng ’yeu zz deu, t’ih tah lau, wan ’yeu tú hó‘, the implements of husbandry are the spade, the spiked hoe, and such like (arma colendi).
• 嘸沒反个意思 m meh ’fan kú‘ í‘ sz‘, he has not the intention of rebelling (consilium deficiendi).
• 敎書个本事勿有 kau‘ sû kú‘ ’pun zz‘ veh ’yeu, the ability to instruct, he does not possess.

c. The verb preceded by or followed by case particles.

• 我現在拉做 ’ngú híen‘ dzé‘ ’lá tsú‘, I am now doing it.
• 勒拉吃茶 leh ’lá k’iuh dzó, drinking tea (inter bibendum).
• 勒裏打算 leh ’lí ’táng sön‘, he is considering (inter putandum).
• 做官裏向也有辛苦 tsú‘ kwén ’lí h’iáng‘ ’á ’yeu sing ’k’ú, in the office of mandarin, there is much care and anxiety (in magistrato gerendo).
• 寫字裏向也有法則 ’siá zz‘ ’lí hiáng‘ ’á ’yeu fah tsuh, in writing, there is a method.

d. The verb as regimen of another verb.

• 斷絕往來 ’tön dzih ’wong lé, cease to have communications.
• 嘸啥做 m sá‘ tsú‘, I have nothing to do.
• 勿曾有啥爭論 veh zung ’yeu sá‘ tsáng lun‘, there has not been any quarreling.
• 我勿想去 ’ngú veh ’siáng k’í‘, I do not think of going.
• 勿要討我厭 veh yau‘ ’t’au ’ngú yíen‘, do not make me displeased.

e. The verb as the instrument of effecting an action.

• 問之咾曉得 mun‘ tsz lau ’h’iau tuh, you would know by asking.
• 開之砲咾攻破城頭 k’é tsz p’au‘ lau kóng p’ú‘ zung deu, he made a breach in the wall by firing cannon.
• 勿留心咾忘記脱者 veh lieu sing lau mong‘ ki‘ t’eh ’tsé, though not attending to it, I have forgotten it.

Obs. Some verbs are found among substantives and adjectives too. 孝 h’iau‘ is a substantive in 百善孝爲先 puh ’zén h’iau‘ wé‘ síen, of all the virtues, filial piety is the chief; an adjective in 孝子 h’iau‘ ’tsz, a filial son, and a verb in 孝順父母 h’iau‘ zun‘ ’vú ’mú, to reverence parents. In the books such variations of grammatical character in the same words are very numerous. In the verse 庶民子來 sû ming ’tsz lé, all the people came as if they were his sons, 子 ’tsz is used adverbially.

Verb as Adjective. 343. The passive gerund of Latin is related to adjectives as the active gerund is to substantives. The corresponding forms in our dialect are compounds which may be translated either as adjectives or passive gerunds.

• 可惡 ’k’ó ú‘, to be hated, or hateful.
• 可殺 ’k’ó sah, ought to be killed.
• 好笑 ’hau siau‘, laughable, fit to be laughed at.
• 好種个 ’hau tsóng‘ kú‘, capable of cultivation.

Obs. The examples given In Art. 246, as in the permissive mood, might also be explained as verbs construed as adjectives.

344. Many of the longer verb groups are translated most conveniently as verbal adjectives.

• 耐勿過 né‘ veh kú‘, unbearable.
• 話勿來 wó‘ veh lé, unutterable.
• 數勿明白 sú‘ veh ming báh, incalculable.