k. only, alone are represented by tseh, tók, tan, tan‘ and forms into which they enter.
Obs. i. Tan, is also an adjective, as in the question, 花單個呢雙個 hwó tan kú‘ ní song kú‘, is the flower single or double? Tóh and tan‘ are both conjunctions, when joined to ’zz, as 但是, 獨是 tan‘ ’zz, tóh ’zz, but.
Obs. ii. The numeral adverbs once, twice, etc. translated by 一次 ih t’sz‘, etc. may be seen in section 4. on auxiliary substantives, Art. 163.
Negative and Affirmative. 268. One of the most common negative particles is 嘸 m, to which 沒 meh, the same in meaning is frequently appended. 嘸 m is properly a verb not to have.
269. The literary word that corresponds to this particle is 無 vú, which is also in common use in colloquial phrases derived from the books or formed on book models.
270 The negative particle in most general use is 勿 veh. It is not prohibitive as in the books, but simply denies like 不 peh in mandarin.
271. The particles 惟 ví, 不 peh and 非 fí, are used in a few combinations.
272. The simplest affirmative is 是 ’zz; certain auxiliary particles are often appended or prefixed.
273. When some quality is affirmed, an adjective of opposite meaning, with the negative particle prefixed, is often employed.
274. The emphasis of positive certainty is conveyed by phrases such as tsun tsung‘, seh zé‘, etc., and the double negation 無非 prefixed to the proposition affirmed.
Obs. The interrogative final mó, is often used to express the same sense with these words, 小囝蠻麽 ’siau nön man mó, the boys are wild indeed.
275. Some phrases imply a moral certainty or necessity (must), and with the negative, the absence of that necessity (need not).
276. There are several phrases to express that the thing affirmed is naturally so, and that nothing else ought to be expected.
277. Different words are usually appropriated to the affirmative and negative forms of assertions. Thus (1) absolute certainty in the negative is expressed by,—
(2). The denial of necessity (need not) is conveyed in such expressions as the following.
Obs. The Imperative also, as in 勿要去 veh yau‘ k’í‘, do not go; 去 末者 k’í‘ meh ’tsé, go has distinct auxiliary words for the affirmative and negative forms.
278. There are some adverbs appropriated to express affirmative and negative propositions in the interrogative form.
Obs. i. The final interrogative 麽 mau, or 呢 ní, is appended frequently to any sentences of this sort.
Obs. ii. Affirmative questions implying a strong denial are also occasionally asked by these particles; e.g. 豈有此理 k’í ’yeu ’t’sz ’lí, how can this be? 難道我哄騙儂否 nan dau‘ ’ngú hóng‘ p’ien‘ nóng‘ ’vá, could I deceive you?
Adverbs of place. 279. Demonstrative adverbs are derived from pronouns, as adverbs of manner from adjectives. Thus here and there, are translated by compounds formed from the three pronouns tí‘, kú‘, í.
Obs. From 此 ’t’sz is formed 此地 ’t’sz dí‘, here; 堂 tong, also forms tí‘ dong, here, etc.
280. On this, and on that side are formed in a similar manner with the auxiliaries míen‘, face, and píen, side.
281. The postpositions or case particles corresponding to our locative prepositions enter into similar forms.
Obs. i. 下 ’au forms the same compounds as 上 ’zong, with one other 下底 ’au ’tí, all of them with the sense below. 外 ngá‘, forms the same compounds as 裏 ’lí (excepting that with 向 h’iáng‘), in the sense of outside.
Obs. ii. For similar groups of nouns, with the points of the compass, see Art. 152.
282. The adjectives ’tsú yeu‘, right and left, form some groups.
283. The adverbs of place and direction that remain are few.
284. Wáng and ’zû form with verbs many groups of four characters, in which the action is said to be done in various ways, literally across and perpendicularly.
Obs. In weaving, the cross thread is 芉紗 ü‘ só, the other 經紗 kiung só; here ü‘ is used for wei 緯.
285. The adverbs in and out, up and down, here and there, etc. are translated in Chinese by repeated verbs.
Adverbs of time. 286. The following are the primitive adverbs of time employed in the dialect.
Obs. i. Of these words, only 難, 將, 再, 又, 還, 就, nan, tsiáng, tsé‘, í‘, wan, dzieu‘, are separable from the groups in which they are found. 未 as in 未哩 mí‘ ’lí, not yet, is a negative adverb of time.
Obs. ii. All these adverbs are book words, except pau‘, nan, and k’an.
287. The demonstrative pronouns 第, 伊, 故, tí‘, í, kú‘, and some other words combine with the substantives 歇, 刻, 時, h’ih, k’uh, zz, a short time, to form adverbs of time.
歇 h’ih, also helps to form 大歇 tá h’ih, 爽歇 zong h’ih, after a little time; 少歇 ’sau h’ih, ib.
288. Several adjectives and prepositions are borrowed to form compound adverbs of time.
a. 明 ming, bright. 明朝 ming tsau, to-morrow; 明日 ming nyih, ib.; 明天 ming t’íen, ib.; 明年 ming níen, next year.
b. 早 ’tsau, early; 早早 ’tsau ’tsau, early; 老早 ’lau ’tsau, early.
c. 古 ’kú ancient. 古時間 ’kú zz kan, in ancient times; 古時節 ’kú zz tsih, ib.; 古來 ’kú lé, from ancient times.
d. 新 sing, new. 新年 sing níen, new year; 從新 dzóng sing, afresh.
e. 近 ’kiun, near. 近年 ’kiun níen, of late years; 近時 ’kiun zz, lately; 近來 ’kiun lé, ib. 近今 ’kiun kiun, ib. 近世 ’kiun sz‘, in modern times.
f. 舊 ’kieu, old. 舊年 ’kieu níen, last year; 仍舊 zung ’gieu, as before; 照舊 tsau‘ ’gieu, ib. 依舊 í‘ ’gieu, ib.
g. 常 dzáng, constant. 常庄 dzáng tsong, 打常 ’táng dzáng, 常常 dzáng dzáng 不常 peh dzáng, always; 常時 dzáng zz, sometimes; 日常 nyih dzáng, daily.
h. 前 zíen, former. 前日子 zíen nyih ’tsz, day before yesterday; 目前 móh zíen, now. 前年 zíen níen, year before last. 從前 dzóng zíen, formerly. 以前 ’í zíen, before; 前代 zíen dé‘, the former dynasty. 前朝 zíen zau, ib.; 前世 zíen sz‘, in a former life.
i. 後 ’heu, after. 後來 ’heu lé, 以後 ’í heu‘, after; 後月 ’heu niöh, next month; 後年 ’heu níen, year after next; 後日 ’heu nyih, day after to-morrow.
j. 下 ’hau, 目下 móh ’hau, at present.
k. 多 tú, 日多 nyih tú, daily.
Obs. Zien deu, ’heu deu, before, after, and the cognate adverbs of place are used also for time.
289. Sometimes verbs take the place of what in English are adverbs. They are 來, 過, 歇, 隔 lé, kú‘, h’ih, káh.
290. There are some provincial adverbs of time, whose etymology is uncertain, or at least not referable to words of time.
291. The adjective pronouns combine with substantives of time to form common phrases, which are often used as adverbs.
292. Substantives of time, when repeated, are adverbs.
Obs. Succession in time is frequently represented in English by repetition of a noun with an adverb inserted. Thus, day by day corresponds to 日日 nyih nyih. Such phrases as year after year, one after another are other examples, and have their Chinese equivalents in the next article.
Order and Succession. 293. Succession of periods of time is represented by repetition, and the intervention of the verb 過 kú‘, pass (English adverb after).
294. The particles and, after, by, in one by one, two and two, in rows, etc. are not represented, succession being expressed by mere repetition of the numeral and its particle.
Obs. For the repetition of verbs, in phrases such as 站一站 dzan‘ ih dzan‘, stand waiting a little; 研一研 níen ih níen, rub a little ink; 冷個冷 ’láng kú‘ ’láng, cool it a little; 調個調 diau kú‘ diau, stir it a little; 淘個淘 dau kú‘ dau, wash it (of rice); 净個净 zing‘ kú‘ zing‘, wash it (of clothes); 我要辨個辨清爽 ’ngú yau‘ bíen‘ kú‘ bíen‘ t’sing ’song, I wish to distinguish clearly; see also Art. 232.
295. Gradual increase by little and little, is expressed by repeating the auxiliary phrases ih ’ngan, ih ’tíen, with the adjective in the centre. When the gradual change is in time, words of time form similar phrases.
296. Many adverbial phrases are formed by verbs and other words. Thus, the adverb when is often supplied by a noun of time following the verb with the connecting particle 個 kú‘.
297. Never, is expressed by 一向 ih h’iáng‘, with a negative phrase following it.
298. The questions why? and how? are often asked by verbs with the pronoun what? thus rendering an adverb unnecessary.
Adverbs of Similarity and Reciprocity. 299. The adverb 恰 hah, and adjective 像 siáng‘, like, assist in forming several compound phrases in the sense like.
Obs. 能 nung, is usually appended to the noun that follows these words, in the sense of like; 一樣 ih yáng‘, 一般 ih pén, are also employed in the sense in the same manner.
300.The adverbs of reciprocity are 大介 tá‘ ká‘, 介家 ká‘ ká, 介多 ká‘ tú, mutually, one to another, and 相 in combination with verbs and adjectives; e.g. siáng ziáng‘, 相像 like one another.
Obs. Together with, is expressed by means of certain adverbs 一淘, ih dau, 一氣 ih k’í‘, following the preposition and its noun. 忒我一氣進 城 t’eh ’ngú ih k’i‘ tsing‘ zung, go with me into the city. v. Art. 140.
301. The primitive adverbs are not repeated, except in one or two instances. It is different with those that are derived. Some examples in addition to these already given are here appended.
Obs. It has been shown that adjectives, and also substantives of time, become adverbs by repetition.
302. Some verbs combine intimately with adverbs, so as to form compound adverbs.
303. It will be seen in the next section, that some words marked as adverbs are also conjunctions. The converse is also true. For some words, such as 越, 且, 如 yöh, ’t’síe, zû regarded in this work as primitive conjunctions, form adverbial phrases.
304. The foregoing analysis shows that adverbs qualifying verbs, and expressive of place and quantity are for the most part derived. On the other hand, those adverbs that qualify adjectives, and express time are usually primitive. In our own language, the adverbs that qualify affirmations, e.g. assuredly, certainly, etc. are derived, while here they are primitive. The old division of this part of speech by western grammarians into two parts, viz. primitive and derivative, thus appears to be properly applicable to a language, that has been often supposed to present no resemblance in etymological development to the speech of the rest of mankind. The Romans made their adverbs of place out of demonstrative pronouns, and prepositions, in a manner very similar to the Chinese, (e.g. hic here, supra above, etc.) Adjectives with particular terminations supplied them with adverbs of manner, (cito, bene, omnino.) Nunc, jam, are examples of primitive adverbs of time, while the root stá stand, in statim, exactly corresponds to 立 lih, stand, in 立刻 lih k’uh, immediately. It may be added that zén, hú, etc. in Art. 259 form appendages to the root, of the same value as the terminations -ly, -like, to which we are accustomed. What is new, is the extensive use of repetitions, the great number of fixed phrases, and the peculiarities in the laws of grouping.
305. The primitive conjunctions may be thus classed:—
Obs. The compounds formed by these words, and words and phrases used as conjunctions derived from other parts of speech, will most of them be found in the following articles.
Connectives. 306. The particle that connects words like the English and, is 咾 lau.
Obs. The preposition tah, t’eh, with, often serve the same purpose, e.g. 儂忒我 nóng‘ t’eh ’ngú, you and I; 日頭搭之月 nyih deu tah tsz niöh, the sun and moon.
307. Clauses are connected by 也 ’á and 還 wan. They are also frequently used merely as introductory particles.
Obs. i. If the ’á or wan is emphasized it means also. If pronounced without emphasis, it is simply introductory.
Obs. ii. The adverbs dzieu‘, niön, are used as introductory particles to affirmative prepositions: 就是我 dzieu‘ ’zz ’ngú, 原是我 niön ’zz ’ngú, it is I.
308. Another circumstance to be considered, in addition to what has preceded, is introduced 而且 rh ’t’siá, and further 尙且 zong‘ ’t’siá, and what is still more.
309. A new subject of remark is introduced by 再者 tsé‘ ’tsé, again, to proceed; 還有 wan ’yeu, there is another thing; 那裏曉得 ’á ’lí ’h’iau tuh, meantime; who could have thought it? strange to say!
Adversatives. 310. But is represented by 但 tan‘ 但是 tan‘ ’zz, 獨是 tóh (g) ’zz; however is 到底 tau‘ ’tí, or 究竟 kieu‘ kiung‘.
Obs. Of these words, tau‘ ’tí is the most common. It sometimes preserves its etymological meaning in the end, as in the example given.
311. Lest is expressed 常怕 dzáng p’ó‘. The compounded phrase 只怕 tseh p’ó‘, I am only afraid that, has come to mean I suppose that.
Obs. 恐怕, ’k’úng p’ó‘ is I fear that; 只怕 tseh p’ó‘ has sometimes a similar meaning. 燈旺來些只怕燙壞之手 tung yong‘ lé ’sí tseh p’ó‘ t’ong‘ wá‘ tsz ’seu, the lamp is very hot (bright) I fear it will burn your hand.
312. The conjunctional phrases and yet, on the other hand, are expressed by 倒 ’tau and 偏 píen, perversely.
313. Such conjunctional phrases as it would be better to, are represented by 勿如 veh zû, not so good as, or 𡨴可 niung ’k’ó, I would rather, 勿比 veh ’pí, it cannot be compared with.
Illative or Transitional Conjunctions. 314. Therefore is represented by 所以 ’sú ’í, 故此 kú‘ ’t’sz, 故所以 kú‘ ’sú ’í, 𡀽咾 keh lau.
315. Then is expressed by 𡀽末 ké‘ (keh) meh, when it denotes a logical consequence, and by 難末 nan meh, when the transition is one of time.
Obs. Nan meh, has also been placed among the adverbs as a particle of time. Its book equivalent 於是 ü ’zz, consequently.
Causal Conjunctions. 316. 因爲 yung wé‘, 爲 wé‘ and 爲之 wé‘ tsz correspond to our word because.
Conditional particles. 317. 末 meh, if, is placed at the end of the clause.
318. 若使 zák sz‘, 若是 zog ’sz, 若然 zog zén, 倘或 ’t’ong wóh, 倘使 ’t’ong sz‘, 倘然 ’t’ong zén, are used in the sense of if: 旣然 kí‘ zén is if it was already so.
Obs. The verbs 使, 是, and adverb 然 lose their primary sense, and form in colloquial usage merely a terminating syllable to the conjunction with which they combine.
319. Even if is expressed by 就是 dzieu‘ ’zz, 也怕 ’á p’ó‘ 那裏怕 ’á ’lí p’ó‘.
320. If, with the negative is represented 勿然 veh zén, or 再勿然 tsé‘ veh zén, should it not be so.
Obs. This amounts to an entire omission of the if, for 然 zén is an adverb so. In fact, the if is often not used in affirmative sentences as well as negative.
321. The conjunctional phrases suppose that, for instance, for example, are expressed by 比方 ’pí fong, 譬如 p’í zû, 猶如 yeu zû, etc.
Obs. The adverbs of likeness (see Art. 299) are also similarly employed. 好像日頭忒旺, 眼睛勿好對之伊咾看 ’hau ziáng‘ nyih deu t’uh yong‘, ’ngan tsing veh ’hau té‘ tsz í lau k’ön, just as the sun is too bright for our eyes to gaze on him.
Antithetical Conjunctions. 322. Clauses with the particles although, yet, are formed by 雖然 sûe zén and 然而 zén rh, etc.
Obs. Although is very frequently omitted, as in the second example.
323. Either,—or are expressed by 或者 wóh ’tsé, 或者 wóh ’tsé, or by 勿是, 就是 veh ’zz — dzieu‘ ’zz.
324. Neither,—nor are represented both by 也—也 ’á—’á, and by 又—又 í‘—í‘, with a negative.
325. When the first clause is interrogative, and the second commences with or, the equivalent form is ní, the interrogative particle at the end of the first clause, and 還是 wan ’zz beginning the second. Sometimes 也 ’á alone is used.
326. Because,—therefore are expressed by 因爲 yung wé‘, or 爲之 wé‘ tsz, in the first clause, and any of the illative particles in the second.
327. Why—? because—are expressed by any of the adverb forms for why? and the casual conjunctions in the answering clause.
328. On the one hand, on the other hand, are expressed by ih míen‘ or ih deu repeated.
329. Not only—but even,— are expressed by 勿獨之 veh dók tsz, 惟獨 ví tók, not only, or 勿但不過 veh dan‘ peh kú‘ in the first clause, 就是 dzieu‘ ’zz, or 連 líen or 連搭 líen tah, in the second.
330. The—the— are expressed by 越 yöh repeated, 越早越好 yöh ’tsau yöh ’hau, the earlier the better.
Obs. Similar phrases are formed with 越發 yöh fah, the more, in each clause, also with 越加 yöh ká.
331. When the supplementary clause is, how much more, 何况于 hú hwong‘ ü, 况乎 hwong‘ ú, 而况 rh hwong‘ or 况且 hwong‘ ’t’siá, are employed.
332. There are some words which though they have important grammatical uses cannot be conveniently set down among the preceding parts of speech and they are therefore placed here. Such are 個, 之, 者, 哩, kú‘, tsz, ’tsé, ’lí.
a. 個 kú‘, besides its use as a numeral particle (Art. 156), as the sign of the possessive (130) and in relative pronoun sentences, also takes its place as a final after a verb, or adjective in any indicative proposition.
b. 之 tsz is the sign of the past or past participle, but as will be seen in the first three examples, it is often indicative.
c. 者 ’tsé is the sign of an action completed, or in course of being done, whether expressed by a verb or adjective; also of the imperative.
d. 哩 ’lí and 拉 ’lá, are used like ’tsé and kú‘, as finals to any indicative proposition. 拉 ’lá is also a preposition (Art. 256).
e. 咾 lau, the particle that connects a string of substantives, occurs at the end of sentences that require something to complete their sense.
Obs. 𫡄 ná is a final expletive used with 者 ’tsé.
讀者𫡄 tók ’tsé ná, I am reading.
333. The final interrogatives are 呢, 否, 蠻, 麽, ní, ’vá, man‘, mó. Characters are borrowed for ’vá and man‘.
a. 呢 ní is used either at the end of the first clause in an interrogative antithesis, or at the end of a single clause. It is sometimes pronounced ’nian.
b. 否 ’vá and 蠻 man‘ are appropriated to direct interrogations, where not antithetical. They are colloquialisms.
c. 麽 mó (mau), besides expressing direct and indirect interrogation, also implies a strong affirmative. (Art. 278).
334. The initial interrogatives 豈 ’k’í, how? 幾 ’kí, how many? with 那 ’ná, forming ’á ’lí, 那裏 where? which? and 那能 ’ná nung, how? have already been illustrated among the pronouns and adverbs.
335. The interjections properly so called are such as—
336. The rules for the relative position of the parts of speech are few and simple. They will be first considered without reference to grouping, repetition, etc.; the syntax of words used under those forms will be presented in subsequent sections.
A substantive that governs another as an attributive genitive always precedes it, and the particle 個 kú‘ is inserted.
Obs. i. Thus substance precedes accident or attribute, and the whole its part.
Obs. ii In English this order is reversed, when the particle of is employed; e.g. affairs of the nation is in our dialect, 國家個事體 kók kiá kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í. When a possessive case is formed with ’s, the order agrees with that of the Chinese; e.g. the emperor’s palace, 皇帝個宮殿 wong tí‘ kú‘ kóng díen‘.
Obs. iii. 個 kú‘ is omitted in some instances where it would incommode the rhythmus; e.g. 外國人總要來帮助此地咸豐皇帝 ngá‘ koh niun ’tsóng yau‘ lé póng ’zú ’t’sz dí‘ Yan fóng wong tí‘, foreigners must come and assist Hien Fung, the emperor of this country; 一向嘸沒興旺辰光 ih h’iang‘ m meh h’iung wong‘ zun kwong, it has never had a time of prosperity.
337. Adjectives precede their substantives with or without 個 kú‘.
Obs. Numbers take the auxiliary word (Part II. section 4.) appropriated to the substantive they precede, between them and the substantive. An adjective if needed, is inserted after the auxiliary, e.g. 一座大房子 ih zû‘ dú‘ vong ’tsz, a large house; 匹匹白馬 sz‘ p’ih báh ’mó, four white horses.
338. Transitive verbs precede their objects.
Obs. i. If there is a dative and accusative, the latter comes next to the verb. For examples, see Art. 236 and 133.
Obs. ii. Impersonal verbs take a substantive after them as transitive verbs; e.g. 難開花者 nan k’é hwó ’tsé, now the flowers open (lit. open the flowers); 落雨 loh ’ü, it rains (lit. falls rain).
339. Adverbs are placed for the most part before the adjectives and verbs that they qualify.
Obs. The adverbs that follow their adjectives, such as 近煞 ’kiun sah, very near, 好極 ’hau giuh, very good, will be found in their places, where the comparison of adjectives and adverbs of quality are treated of.
340. Of the prepositions, some forming the locative case follow their words; the rest inclusive of 在 ’dzé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, 勒裏 leh ’lí, all meaning being at or in, precede their substantives. 勿在鄕下 veh ’dzé h’iáng ’au, not down in the country.
Obs. Prepositions of motion and direction preceding the personal pronouns require a substantive of place to follow. 到我堂來 tau‘ ’ngú dong lé, come to me; 拉㑚堂勿有 ’lá ná‘ dong veh ’yeu, where you come from, there are none. See also Art. 197.
341. Under this heading, will be exhibited examples of the manner in which words by a change in position, must be construed as included in parts of speech, different from those to which when alone, they obviously belong. First, there are three principal changes of position, by which adjectives become substantives.
а. Adjectives when they follow a substantive with 個 kú‘ are to be construed as substantives.
Obs. i. Compare In English “the theory of the beautiful,” etc.
Obs. ii. Sometimes 處 t’sû‘ is added to the adjective, as also 頭 deu and fah 發, compound substantives are thus formed; cf. Art. 110. The same words also form substantives from verbs.
b. Adjectives are frequently the objects of transitive verbs, and in consequence are necessarily translated in such cases as substantives.
Obs. These examples differ from compounds, such as 加大 ká dú‘, make larger; 開闊 k’é k’weh, to extend in width (see Art. 219), which in their combined form, constitute transitive verbs with a regimen. These on the other hand contain the verb and its object within them.
Obs. Adjectives with the interrogatives how much? how many? preceding them, the verb being understood, are in common use; e.g. 幾許深淺 ’kí hó‘ sun ’t’síen, how much depth is there? or how deep is it? 多少深 tú ’sau sun ib.; 勿知多少高低 veh tsz tú ’sau kau tí, I do not know how high it is.
c. When one adjective is qualified by another, it becomes a substantive; with this, English usage agrees, as in the following names of colours.
| 濃黑 nióng huh, deep black. | 淡紅 ’tan hóng, light red. |
| 老黃 ’láu wong, faded yellow. | 嫩黃 nung‘ wong, fresh yellow. |
| 重藍 ’dzóng lan, deep blue. | 淺藍 ’t’síen lan, light blue. |
Verb as Substantive. 342. Construing verbs as substantives is common to many languages. The infinitive and gerund forms are used for this purpose, as also the present participle. In Chinese these are all identical, being the root itself.
a. The verb as subject of a proposition with a predicate following (inf. and pres, part.).
b. The verb as subject, with a noun as attribute (in Latin grammar, the genitive of the gerund).
c. The verb preceded by or followed by case particles.
d. The verb as regimen of another verb.
e. The verb as the instrument of effecting an action.
Obs. Some verbs are found among substantives and adjectives too. 孝 h’iau‘ is a substantive in 百善孝爲先 puh ’zén h’iau‘ wé‘ síen, of all the virtues, filial piety is the chief; an adjective in 孝子 h’iau‘ ’tsz, a filial son, and a verb in 孝順父母 h’iau‘ zun‘ ’vú ’mú, to reverence parents. In the books such variations of grammatical character in the same words are very numerous. In the verse 庶民子來 sû ming ’tsz lé, all the people came as if they were his sons, 子 ’tsz is used adverbially.
Verb as Adjective. 343. The passive gerund of Latin is related to adjectives as the active gerund is to substantives. The corresponding forms in our dialect are compounds which may be translated either as adjectives or passive gerunds.
Obs. The examples given In Art. 246, as in the permissive mood, might also be explained as verbs construed as adjectives.
344. Many of the longer verb groups are translated most conveniently as verbal adjectives.