An Advanced English Grammar with Exercises

II. Should I (or we)? in questions:—

• 1. Should I break my neck if I fell?
• 2. Should I be poisoned if I ate those berries?
• 3. Should I take cold without my overcoat?
• 4. Should I disturb you if I were to practise my music lesson?
• 5. Should we run aground if we missed the channel?

Note. Would I? is confined, for the most part, to questions in which one repeats the words or thought of another. Thus,—“You would give five dollars for a ticket.” “Would I? No, I wouldn’t!” In this use it is chiefly colloquial.

III. Should you? and Would you? in questions:—

• 1. Should you drown if the boat were to capsize? [Yes, I should drown, for I do not know how to swim.]
• 2. Should you despair if this plan were a failure? [No, I should not, for I have other resources.]
• 3. Should you think that ten yards of velvet would be enough? [Yes, I should think so.]
• 4. Should you be offended if I were to speak frankly? [No, I should not be offended.]
• 5. Should you wish to examine the plans again before deciding? [Yes, I should (see note under I, above).]
• 6. Would you wear a hat or a cap? [I would wear a cap if I were you.]
• 7. Would you study Greek if you were in my place? [Yes, I would.]
• 8. Would you accept my apology if it were offered? [Certainly, I would accept it gladly.]
• 9. Would you be so kind as to lend me your compasses? [Certainly I would lend them, if I had not lost them.]
• 10. Would you allow me to use your name as a reference? [I would.]

The choice between should and would in these sentences corresponds to the form expected in the answer (§ 238).

299. The chief occasions on which Would you? is correct are:—(1) in asking advice in a matter of doubt, and (2) in asking consent or permission.

In examples 6 and 7 in § 298, III, the speaker asks advice; in 8, 9, and 10, he asks consent or permission.

300. Note that the proper forms are I should like, Should I like? and Should you like?

• I should like to read that book.
• Should I like to go to Rome? Indeed, I should.
• Should you like to receive a copy of our catalogue? [I should like to receive one.]

Note. Would is very common in these phrases, even among writers of repute, but it is still contrary to the best usage. The reason for should is the same as in I should wish (§ 298, I, note).

301. I’d and we’d are contractions of I would and we would. Hence they can never stand for I should and we should (§ 235).

302. Should in the second and third persons may be used in simple declarative sentences and independent clauses to express the will of the speaker (§ 239).

• If I had my way, you should be prosecuted. [That is: I would take care that you were prosecuted.]
• If I had the money, you should be paid immediately. [Compare: You shall be paid.]
• If I were you, she should not regret her generosity. [Compare: She shall not regret it.]

II. SHOULD AND WOULD IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

303. In some kinds of subordinate clauses, the use of should and would differs considerably from that in simple sentences and principal clauses.

The following classes require attention:—(1) clauses of purpose or expectation (§ 304), (2) conditional and concessive clauses (§ 305), (3) clauses expressing volition not that of the subject (§ 306), (4) clauses stating something as an idea (§ 307), (5) indirect discourse (§ 308).

304. In subordinate clauses expressing the purpose or expectation with which anything is done, shall and should are used in all three persons.

• Charleton took great pains that {I | you | they} should understand the details of the treaty.
• Scott {is | was} very careful that nothing {shall | should} interfere with his plans.
• They took every precaution lest {I | you | he} should suspect the plot.
• Anderson waited patiently until {I | you | they} should arrive with the horses.
• We strained every nerve to reach the cave before the storm should break.

305. In conditional or concessive clauses expressing a future supposed case doubtfully, shall and should are used in all three persons; but will and would are proper when the subject is thought of as wishing or consenting.

• 1. What would happen if {I | you | he} should not carry out the commander’s instructions?
• 2. If {I | you | he} should miss the steamer, our friends would be alarmed.
• 3. Whoever {shall | should} violate this law {shall | should} pay the penalty. [That is: If anybody shall violate, etc.]
• 4. Whenever {I | you | he} shall find an opportunity, let us try the experiment. [That is: If ever I shall find, etc.]
• 5. He promised to assist you whenever you should need help. [Whenever = if ever.]
• 6. Though {we | you | they} should fail, others would make the attempt. [Concession.]
• 7. Though Evans should disappoint me, I should not lose confidence in him.
• 8. Vernon will do his part if {I | you | they} will coöperate with him.
• 9. If {I | you | he} will only make the effort, success is certain.
• 10. Edmund would reveal the secret if {I | you | they} would assist him in his search for the treasure.
• 11. If we would take pains, our parents would be satisfied.
• 12. Whoever will join us may be sure of a pleasant and profitable journey. [That is: If any one will join us, he may be sure, etc.]

When a future supposed case is admitted or conceded as certain, will may be used in the second and third persons to denote mere futurity.

• Though {you | he} will certainly fail, {you | he} may make the attempt.
• Though the ship will not sink for some hours, let us take to the boats.

306. Shall and should are often used in the second and third persons in subordinate clauses to express volition which is not that of the subject.

• Templeton insists that you shall accompany him.
• This letter directs where you shall station yourself.
• We gave orders that the gates should be closed.
• My wish is that {you | he} should remain at home.
• The law prescribed when and to whom the tax should be paid.

307. When a clause with that states something, not as a fact but as an idea to be considered, should is the proper auxiliary in all three persons.

• I am not surprised that you should find your lesson rather difficult. [That is: “When I consider the matter, I do not find the idea surprising.” In “I am not surprised that you find,” etc., the subordinate clause makes the statement as a fact.]
• It is strange that Tom should neglect his swimming lessons. [Contrast: It is strange that Tom neglects.]
• That Napoleon should have chafed at captivity is only natural. [Contrast: That Napoleon chafed.]

308. For shall and will, should and would, in indirect discourse, see §§ 438–439.

THE INFINITIVE

309. The infinitive is a verb-form that has some of the properties of a noun (§ 28). Its two-sided character comes out clearly when it is used as the subject of a sentence.

• 1. To hope is our only resource.
• 2. To flatter is not my custom.
• 3. To sleep was an impossibility.
• 4. To surrender seemed disgraceful.
• 5. To choose wisely was my greatest difficulty.
• 6. To scale the wall was the work of a moment.

Each of these infinitives (to hope, to flatter, etc.) is a noun, for each is the simple subject of a sentence. Besides, an ordinary noun may be substituted for each infinitive with no change in meaning; as,—“Hope is our only resource”; “Flattery is not my custom”; “Sleep was an impossibility.”

But each of these infinitives is also a verb,—for (1) it expresses action; (2) it may be modified by an adverb, as in No. 5; (3) it takes an object if it is transitive, as in No. 6.

An infinitive (as the examples show) has regularly no subject and therefore lacks both number and person. Hence it is not bound by the general rule for the agreement of a verb with its subject (§ 222). From this fact it derives its name, infinitive, which means “unrestricted” or “free from limitations.”³⁸

310. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It expresses action or state in the simplest possible way, without person or number.

It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the sign of the infinitive.

To is not, in strictness, a part of the infinitive, but it may be so regarded for convenience, since the infinitive, in most of its uses, is preceded by to.

Note. To sometimes stands for an infinitive in careless speech: as,—“You may go if you wish to” (that is, “if you wish to go”). Such expressions are to be avoided. It is better to say, “You may go if you wish.”

311. The infinitive often lacks to, especially in verb-phrases with the auxiliaries will, shall, may, can, must, might, could, would, should, do, did. For examples, see pp. 102, 114, 124.

312. The infinitive has two tenses,—the present and the perfect.

1. The present infinitive is the verb in its simplest form, usually preceded by to: as,—to live, to teach, to bind, to strike.

2. The perfect infinitive is made by prefixing the infinitive of the auxiliary verb have to the past participle (§ 243): as,—to have lived, to have taught, to have bound, to have struck.

313. An infinitive may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause.

• To write legibly is a valuable accomplishment.
• It would be useless to search longer.
• They allowed him to go in peace. [Adverbial phrase.]
• To dive among those weeds would be folly.
• Theodore promises to come when I send for him. [Adverbial clause.]

No modifier should be inserted between to and the infinitive.

• I beg you to inquire carefully into this matter. [Not: to carefully inquire.]
• Mr. Harris moved to postpone the question indefinitely. [Not: to indefinitely postpone.]
• I expect always to be poor. [Not: to always be poor.]

Note. Careless writers pay slight attention to this rule, and some good writers and speakers defy it, hoping to break it down. But it is unquestionably still in accord with the best usage.

314. The infinitive may take an object if its meaning allows.

• I long to visit Italy.
• My mother feared to enter the house.
• To launch a boat was impossible.
• To grant your request is a pleasure.
• To give him money is useless. [Money is the direct object of to give, and him the indirect object.]

315. The infinitive is used in a variety of constructions,—(1) as a noun, (2) as an adjective modifier or adverbial modifier, (3) in the so-called infinitive clause.

I. THE INFINITIVE AS NOUN

316. The infinitive is used in various noun constructions,—as subject, as predicate nominative, as nominative of exclamation, as appositive, as object of certain prepositions, as modifier.

317. An infinitive with or without a complement or modifiers, may be used as the subject of a sentence, as a predicate nominative, or as an appositive.

• To descend was extremely difficult. [Subject.]
• To secure a seat was impossible.
• To sing well requires practice.
• His delight was to travel. [Predicate nominative.]
• The governor’s policy is to wait.
• My wish is to see you immediately.
• To decide was to act. [The first infinitive is the subject, and the second is a predicate nominative.]
• Both alternatives, to advance and to retreat, seemed equally hazardous. [Apposition with the subject.]
• My first plan, to tunnel under the wall, proved a failure.
• He has but one aim in life, to succeed. [Apposition with the object.]
• I have written with a definite purpose, to dissuade you.
• I give you three choices,—to buy, to lease, or to build.

318. An infinitive in the predicate is often in apposition with the expletive subject it.

• It was a pleasure to see him. [Instead of: To see him was a pleasure.]
• It is easy to understand you.
• It will be impossible to forget.
• It proved very difficult to find evidence against him.

In this use the infinitive, though grammatically in apposition with it, is really the subject of the thought (see § 120, 2).

319. The infinitive may be used as the object of the prepositions but, except, about.

• There was nothing to do but walk (or to walk).
• He will do anything except resign (or except to resign).
• We are about to object. [An idiom expressing futurity.]
• The train is about to start.

320. The infinitive may be used as a nominative of exclamation (§ 88, 4).

• To sleep! perchance to dream!
• To suffer and be silent!
• O to be a boy again! [A wish.]
• O to have lived in the brave days of old!

II. THE INFINITIVE AS A MODIFIER

321. An infinitive may be used as an adjective modifier of a noun or as an adverbial modifier of an adjective.

In this use the infinitive is said to depend on the word which it modifies.

With Nouns (Adjective Modifier)	With Adjectives (Adverbial Modifier)
An opportunity to advance came.	The men are ready to advance.
Determination to win brings success.	John is eager to win.
Willingness to oblige makes friends.	I shall be glad to oblige you.
I wish I had the ability to swim.	We are all able to swim.
His anxiety to please us was laughable.	He is anxious to please everybody.

322. The infinitive without to may be used as an adjective modifier after the direct object of see, hear, feel, and some other verbs of like meaning.

• I saw the policeman arrest him.
• Hear the sea roar!
• Can you feel the ground tremble?
• Ruth watched the tide come in.

In this use the infinitive is practically equivalent to a participle. Compare “I heard him shout” with “I heard him shouting.” Hence the substantive may be regarded as an object, and the infinitive as its modifier. But the construction closely approaches that of an infinitive clause (§§ 324–325).

323. An infinitive may modify a verb (1) by completing its meaning, or (2) by expressing the purpose of the action.

I. Complementary Infinitive

• The ship began to roll.
• The rain continued to fall heavily.
• Every boy desires to succeed.
• The officer neglected to watch his men.
• The prisoners attempted to escape.
• You promised to come to-night.

After dare, the complementary infinitive may or may not have to. Thus,—“I dare not do it”; “Who will dare to speak?”

II. Infinitive of Purpose

• He went to New York to study medicine.
• He opened his lips to speak.
• She closed her eyes to shut out the sight.
• Elsa lifted the cover to see what was inside.
• The conductor signalled to stop the train.
• Harold waited to assist his teacher.

Both the complementary infinitive and the infinitive of purpose may be regarded as adverbial phrases modifying the verb.

Note. After some verbs the infinitive approaches the construction of a pure noun and is often regarded as an object. Thus,—“I desire to see you” (compare “I desire a sight of you”). It is simpler, however, to regard all such infinitives as complementary and to treat them as adverbial modifiers. For it is impossible to distinguish the construction of the infinitive after certain adjectives (as in “I am eager to see you”) from its construction after such verbs as wish and desire.

III. THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE

324. A peculiar infinitive construction often replaces a that-clause as the object of a verb. Thus,—

I wished {that he should go. | him to go.}

In the first sentence, the noun clause that he should go is the object of wished; in the second, this clause is replaced by him to go, but without any change in meaning. This expression consists of two parts:—(1) him, a pronoun in the objective case, which replaces the subject he; and (2) an infinitive to go, which replaces the predicate should go. Thus it is plain that him to go is also a noun clause, of which him is the subject, and to go the predicate. Such an expression is called an infinitive clause.

325. A kind of clause, consisting of a substantive in the objective case followed by an infinitive, may be used as the object of certain verbs.

Such clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.

The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.

Infinitive clauses are used (1) after verbs of wishing, commanding, advising, and the like, and (2) after some verbs of believing, declaring, and perceiving.³⁹ Thus,—

• The colonel commanded them to charge [= that they should charge].
• I believe him to be trustworthy [= that he is trustworthy].
• The judge declared him to be a dangerous man [= that he was, etc.].

After a few verbs the infinitive without to is used in infinitive clauses.

• Mr. Esmond bade his servant pack a portmanteau and get horses. [Compare: ordered his servant to pack, etc.]
• What makes him cry? [Compare: What causes him to cry?]
• I let him sleep. [Compare: I allowed him to sleep.]

326. A predicate pronoun after to be in an infinitive clause is in the objective case, agreeing with the subject of the infinitive.

Care should be taken not to confuse this construction with the predicate nominative (§ 88, 2).

Predicate Pronoun after to be	Predicate Nominative
I believed it to be her.	I believed that it was she.
We know the author to be him.	We know that the author is he.
	The author is known to be he.
He thought Richard to be me.	He thought that Richard was I.
	Richard was thought to be I.
We suspected the intruders to be them.	We suspected that the intruders were they.

Note the case of the relatives and of the predicate pronouns in the following sentences:—

• A boy whom I thought to be honest deceived me. [Whom is the subject of the infinitive to be and is therefore in the objective case.]
• A boy who, I thought, was honest deceived me. [Who is the subject of was and is therefore nominative. I thought is parenthetical (§ 502).]
• A boy whom I believe to be him just passed me.
• A boy who, I believe, was he, just passed me.

327. An infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition for. Thus,—

• I wrote for him to come. [The clause him to come is the object of for; him is the subject of to come.]
• They are waiting on the shore
  For the bark to take them home.—Noel.
• I long for him to come back.

328. An infinitive clause with for may be used as a subject, as a predicate nominative, or as the object of a preposition.

• For us to delay would be fatal to your enterprise. [Compare: Our delay would be fatal.]
• Our best plan is for the boat to shoot the rapids. [Predicate nominative agreeing with the subject plan.]
• I see no way out of the difficulty except for them to offer an apology. [Compare: except the offer of an apology on their part.]

PARTICIPLES

329. Certain words unite in themselves some of the properties of adjectives with some of the properties of verbs. Such words are called participles (§ 31). Thus,—

Shattered and sinking, but gallantly returning the enemy’s fire, the frigate drifted out to sea.

Shattered, sinking, and returning are verb-forms which are in some respects similar to infinitives: for (1) they express action; (2) they have no subject to agree with, and hence have neither person nor number; and (3) one of them takes a direct object. They differ from infinitives, however, in that they resemble, not nouns, but adjectives, for they describe the substantive frigate to which they belong.

Such verb-forms are called participles, because they share (or participate in) the nature of adjectives.

330. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.

• Who thundering comes on blackest steed?—Byron.
• Clinging to the horns of the altar, voiceless she stood.—De Quincey.
• Deserted, surrounded, outnumbered, and with everything at stake, he did not even deign to stand on the defensive.—Macaulay.
• Shrouded in such baleful vapors, the genius of Burns was never seen in clear azure splendor, enlightening the world.—Carlyle.

FORMS OF PARTICIPLES

331. Verbs have three participles,—the present, the past, and the perfect.

332. The present participle ends in -ing. It usually describes an action as taking place at the same time with some other action.

• Tom came sauntering up the path.
• The beggar shambled down the steps, grumbling.
• Reaching for the flower, I lost my balance.

333. The present participle often refers to time preceding that denoted by the predicate verb.

• Rising from his chair, he bowed. [That is, when he had risen.]
• Learning that your brother was in trouble, I hastened to his aid.

334. The past participle is always associated with the idea of past time or completed action.

1. The past participle of a weak verb has the same form as the past tense.⁴⁰

Present Tense	Past Tense	Past Participle
I mend chairs.	I mended the chairs.	The chairs are mended.
I sweep the rooms.	I swept the rooms.	The rooms are swept.
I seek treasure.	I sought treasure.	Treasure is sought.
I lose money.	I lost money.	The money is lost.

2. The past participle of strong verbs shows a change from the vowel of the present tense.

All strong verbs had originally the ending en (n) in the past participle, but this ending has been lost in many verbs.

Present Tense	Past Tense	Past Participle
He speaks.	He spoke.	(He has) spoken.
He draws.	He drew.	(He has) drawn.
He sings.	He sang.	(He has) sung.
He wins.	He won.	(He has) won.

The forms show great variety and must be learned by practice. (See pp. 291–297 for a list.)

335. The perfect participle is made by prefixing having to the past participle.

• Having mended the watch, I sent it to the owner.
• Having lost his money, James was forced to walk home.

336. The present participle is used in forming the progressive verb-phrases (§§ 255–259).

The past participle is used in forming the complete tenses (§§ 242–244) and the passive voice (§ 247).

CONSTRUCTIONS OF PARTICIPLES

337. Since the participle has adjective properties, its constructions are in the main like those of adjectives.

338. A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.

• Rupert, missing his companion, stepped to the door. [The present participle missing belongs to the subject Rupert.]
• Rising, she opened the window. [Rising belongs to she.]
• I heard the rain falling. [Falling belongs to the object rain.]
• Tom’s arm, broken by the blow, hung useless. [The past participle broken belongs to the subject arm.]
• Having climbed the hill with great difficulty, I stopped to rest. [The perfect participle having climbed belongs to the subject I.]

339. A participle should not be used without some substantive to which it may belong.

• Right: Entering the room, we saw a strange sight. [The participle entering belongs to the pronoun we.]
• Wrong: Entering the room, a strange sight was seen. [Since there is no substantive to which entering can belong, it has no construction.]

Apparent exceptions are concerning, considering, pending, generally speaking, etc. The first three may be classed as prepositions (§ 355), the last as an independent participle.

We fought every day, and, generally speaking, twice every day.—De Quincey.

Note. The rule in § 339 does not apply to such phrases as on entering, after investigating, etc., in which the words in -ing are not participles, but verbal nouns (§ 348). Thus the following sentences are grammatical:—“On entering the room, a strange sight appeared”; “After investigating the subject, the plan was adopted.” Such expressions, however, should be used with caution, since they are sometimes awkward or ambiguous.

340. A participle may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause.

• Smiling brightly, she extended her hand. [Adverb.]
• He leaped forward, shrieking with all his might. [Adverbial phrase.]
• Laughing until he cried, he sank into a chair. [Adverbial clause.]

341. A participle may take an object if its meaning allows.

• I found the old man mending his net.
• Lifting the box, he moved toward the door.
• Giving me a friendly nod, he passed on. [Here nod is the direct object of giving, and me is the indirect object.]

The participle, with its modifiers and such other words as are attached to it, is sometimes called a participial phrase.

342. A participle may be used as a pure adjective.

• A grinning boy confronted me.
• A battered hat hung on the peg.
• Kate was playing with a broken doll.
• We could hear a rushing stream.
• Willing hands make light work.
• He was struck by a spent ball.

343. The past participle is often used as a predicate adjective expressing state or condition.

This construction is easily confused with the passive of verbs. The distinction may be seen in the following examples:—

• The rain began to fall heavily, and every time a gust of wind struck us we were drenched by it.
• When the rain at last ceased, we were drenched [that is, very wet].

In the first sentence, were drenched is the past passive of the verb drench (compare the active “every time a gust of wind struck us, it drenched us”). In the second, the participle drenched expresses mere condition, and is therefore a predicate adjective. The distinction, however, is not always sharp, and in cases of doubt the phrase may be taken together as a passive verb.

Note. The real test is the following. Whenever a person or thing is distinctly present to the mind as the doer of the action, we have a passive verb-phrase. Whenever, on the other hand, the participle merely describes condition with no thought of its being the result of an antecedent act, the construction is that of a predicate adjective (§ 172, 3).

Nominative Absolute

344. A substantive, with the participle belonging to it, is often used to make a peculiar form of adverbial modifying phrase: as,—

The wind failing, we lowered the sail.

Here the wind failing is equivalent to an adverbial phrase (on the failure of the wind) or an adverbial clause (when the wind failed). It defines the time of the action.

{The wind failing, | On the failure of the wind, | When the wind failed,} we lowered the sail.

345. A substantive, with a participle, may express the cause, time, or circumstances of an action.

This is called the absolute construction.

The substantive is in the nominative case and is called a nominative absolute.

• My knife slipping, I cut myself severely. [The phrase my knife slipping is equivalent to because my knife slipped: it expresses cause.]
• Two days having elapsed, we again set forward. [The phrase in italics is equivalent to when two days had elapsed: it expresses time.]
• Evenings he read aloud, his wife sewing by his side. [The phrase expresses one of the circumstances that attended the reading.]
• This done, proceed to business. [The phrase this done is equivalent to the clause since (or when) this is done, and indicates cause or time.]

Note. This construction is called absolute (that is, “free” or “loosened”) because the substantive is not in any one of the constructions (subject, object, apposition, etc.) which ordinarily attach nouns grammatically to other words in the sentence. Nevertheless, the whole phrase, though standing apart from the rest of the sentence, is in meaning an adverbial modifier of some verb.

346. The participle being is sometimes omitted in the absolute construction.

• Allen once mayor, my chance of advancement would be ruined. [That is: Allen once being mayor.]
• Peter stood before me, his hands in his pockets.
• His clothing in shreds, he presented a sorry sight.

VERBAL NOUNS IN -ING (PARTICIPIAL NOUNS)

347. English has a large and important class of verbal nouns that end in -ing, and that serve as the names of actions.

These are identical in form with present participles, for which they are frequently mistaken. The distinction, however, is clear, for the present participle is never used as the name of an action. Hence no such word in -ing that is a subject or an object, or stands in any other noun construction, can be a participle.

• While I was travelling in Mexico, I met with an accident. [Participle.]
• Travelling broadens the mind. [Verbal noun, used as subject.]
• He enjoys travelling. [Verbal noun, used as object of a verb.]
• He spends his time in travelling. [Verbal noun, object of a preposition.]
• Tom’s favorite exercise is swimming. [Verbal noun, predicate nominative.]
• This sport, fishing, has been called the contemplative man’s recreation. [Verbal noun, in apposition with sport.]

That nouns in -ing are real nouns may be proved by putting ordinary nouns in their place.

Travelling broadens the mind.	Travel broadens the mind.
Talking is useless.	Talk is useless.
He is afraid of falling.	He is afraid of a fall.

348. From nearly every English verb there may be formed a verbal noun in -ing.

Verbal nouns in -ing have the form of present participles, but the construction of nouns.

They are often called participial nouns.

Such nouns are freely used, either by themselves or in a series along with ordinary nouns.

• Mining is a dangerous occupation.
• Painting and sculpture are sister arts.
• The Indians of Massachusetts spent their time in hunting, fishing, agriculture, and warfare.
• Reading, writing, and arithmetic are jocosely called “the three r’s.”

349. Verbal nouns in -ing have certain properties of the verb.

1. Verbal nouns in -ing may take a direct or an indirect object if their meaning allows.

• Digging gold seems to the uninitiated like finding buried treasure.
• Lending him money is useless; it merely fosters his unthrifty habits. [Here the noun lending, which is the simple subject of the sentence, takes both a direct object (money) and an indirect object (him), precisely as the verb lend might do.]

2. A verbal noun in -ing may take an adverbial modifier.

Speaking extemporaneously is good practice. [Here the verbal noun speaking is the simple subject; but it is modified by the adverb extemporaneously, precisely as if it were a verb.]

But verbal nouns in -ing, like other nouns, may be modified by adjectives.

Extemporaneous speaking is good practice.

3. To the verbal nouns being and having, past participles may be attached, so as to give the effect of voice and tense.

• After being instructed in my duties, I was ordered to wait on the king.
• There were grave doubts expressed as to his having seen the mastodon.
• After having been treated in so harsh a fashion, I had no wish to repeat the interview.

Such expressions are verbal noun-phrases.

350. Verbal nouns in -ing are similar in some of their constructions to infinitives used as nouns (p. 135).

Infinitive as Noun	Verbal Noun in -ing
To swim was difficult.	Swimming was difficult.
My business is to make shoes.	My business is making shoes.
To see is to believe.	Seeing is believing.

Nouns in -ing are sometimes called infinitives or gerunds.

351. A noun in -ing may be used as an adjective, or as the adjective element in a compound noun (§ 64).

• The sleeping car was completely wrecked.
• William has plenty of spending money.

Note. Other examples are:—a working day, an ironing board, drinking water, smelling salts, marching orders, a walking tour, a swimming race, a vaulting pole. In such cases it makes little difference whether the two nouns are taken together as a compound, or whether the first is regarded as an adjective modifying the second. The difference between this use and that of the participle is perfectly clear. A “sleeping dog” is a dog that sleeps; a “sleeping car” is a car for sleeping. Sometimes, indeed, either explanation is possible. Thus, a “hoisting engine” may be understood either as an “engine that hoists,” or as an “engine for hoisting.” But it is better to class these exceptions with the nouns in -ing.

352. When a verbal noun in -ing is preceded by an article or any other adjective, it cannot take an object.

• {Shooting song-birds | The shooting of song-birds} is forbidden.
• {Launching a ship | The launching of a ship} requires care and skill.
• {Drawing maps | The drawing of maps} is a useful exercise.
• {Eating confectionery constantly | Constant eating of confectionery} is bad for the teeth.
• My business is {driving wells. | the driving of wells.}

Observe that, in each instance, the object (song-birds, ship, maps, confectionery, wells) is replaced by a prepositional phrase when an article or other adjective precedes the verbal noun.

Note. In such expressions as “I went a-fishing,” a is a shortened form of the preposition on, and fishing is a verbal noun used as its object. When a is omitted we have “I went fishing,” “The house is building,” and the like, in which the word in -ing seems to be a participle, but is really the object of the omitted a (= on).

353. The possessive case of a noun or pronoun may be used to limit a verbal noun in -ing.

• I was sure of its being he. [Not: it.]
• I heard of Allen’s being elected. [Not: Allen.]