An Advanced English Grammar with Exercises

CHAPTER III
MODIFIERS

462. The various kinds of modifiers and complements have all been studied in preceding chapters,—each in connection with the construction which it illustrates. For purposes of analysis, however, it is necessary to consider modifiers as such and complements as such.

The topics will be taken up in the following order:—(1) modifiers,—of the subject, of the predicate; (2) complements; (3) modifiers of complements; (4) modifiers of modifiers.

463. A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier (§ 19).

• {Men | Able men | Men of ability} can always find employment.
• {Walls | Battlemented walls | Walls with battlements} usually enclosed mediæval cities.
• {Cottages | English cottages | Cottages in England} are often thatched.
• The boy listened {eagerly. | with eagerness.}
• I coughed {purposely. | on purpose.}
• The bullet passed {harmlessly. | without doing harm.}

464. Modifiers may be attached not only to substantives and verbs, but also to adjectives and adverbs.

All modifiers of substantives are called adjective modifiers; all modifiers of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are called adverbial modifiers.

Note. The terms adjective modifier and adjective are not synonymous. All adjectives are adjective modifiers, but all adjective modifiers are not adjectives. Thus, in “Henry’s skates are rusty,” the possessive noun Henry’s is an adjective modifier, since it limits the noun skates as an adjective might do.

465. A group of words used as a modifier may be either a phrase or a clause (§§ 40–46).

• {Able men | Men of ability | Men who have ability} can always find employment.
• I spoke {thoughtlessly. | without thinking. | before I thought.}

A phrase or a clause used as an adjective modifier is called an adjective phrase or clause.

A phrase or a clause used as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial phrase or clause.

Adjective and adverbial clauses are always subordinate, because they are used as parts of speech (§ 46).

MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT

466. Any substantive in the sentence may take an adjective modifier, but modifiers of the subject are particularly important.

The simple subject may be modified by (1) an adjective, an adjective phrase, or an adjective clause; (2) a participle; (3) an infinitive; (4) a possessive; (5) an appositive.

I. ADJECTIVES, ADJECTIVE PHRASES, ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

467. The simple subject may be modified by an adjective, an adjective phrase, or an adjective clause.

• {Ivory trinkets | Trinkets of ivory | Trinkets which were carved from ivory} lay scattered about.
• {Treeless spots | Spots without trees | Spots where no trees grew} were plainly visible.

In each of these groups of sentences, the subject of the first sentence is modified by an adjective, that of the second by an adjective phrase, that of the third by an adjective clause.

Most adjective phrases are prepositional (§ 42), as in the examples.

468. An adjective clause may be introduced by a relative pronoun or a relative adverb. For lists, see § 377.

I. Relative Pronouns

• The architect who designed this church was a man of genius.
• The painter whom Ruskin oftenest mentions is Turner.
• A piece of amber which is rubbed briskly will attract bits of paper.
• The day that I dreaded came at last.
• The plain through which this river flows is marvelously fertile.
• The book from which I got this information is always regarded as authoritative.
• A friend in whom one can trust is a treasure beyond price.
• The boys with whom he associates do him no good.

II. Relative Adverbs

• The spot where the Old Guard made their last stand is marked by a bronze eagle.
• The morning when I arrived in Rome is one of my pleasantest memories.
• The year after Ashton left home brought fresh disaster.
• The land whence Scyld drifted in his magic boat will never be known.

Note. A preposition and a relative pronoun may often replace a relative adverb. Thus, in the second example, on which might be substituted for when.

II. PARTICIPLES

469. The subject may be modified by a participle (with or without modifier or complement).

• 1. Smiling, the child shook his head.
• 2. My aunt, reassured, took up her book again.
• 3. The prisoner sank back exhausted.
• 4. Exasperated beyond endurance, the captain cut the rope.
• 5. John, obeying a sudden impulse, took to his heels.
• 6. Having broken one oar, Robert had to scull.
• 7. The natives, fearing captivity above all things, leaped into the river.
• 8. Albert left the room, looking rather sullen.

In the fourth example the participle is modified by an adverbial phrase; in the fifth and sixth, it has an object; in the seventh, it has both an object and a modifier; in the eighth, it is followed by the predicate adjective sullen. In analysis, the whole participial phrase (consisting of the participle and accompanying words) may be treated as an adjective phrase modifying the subject; but it is simpler to regard the participle as the modifier, and then to enumerate its modifiers, etc., separately.

Thus, in the seventh example, the simple subject natives is modified by the participle fearing, which has for a complement captivity (the direct object) and is modified by the adverbial phrase above all things.

Note. A participle, though a modifier of the subject, has at the same time a peculiar relation to the predicate, because it may take the place of an adverbial clause. Thus, in the seventh example, fearing is practically equivalent to the clause because they feared, which, if substituted for the participle, would of course modify the predicate verb leaped. This dual office of the participle comes from its twofold nature as (1) an adjective and (2) a verb. In analyzing, we treat the participle as an adjective modifier of the noun to which it belongs; but its function as a substitute for an adverbial clause is an important means of securing variety in style.

III. INFINITIVES

470. The subject may be modified by an infinitive.

• Eagerness to learn was young Lincoln’s strongest passion.
• Desire to travel made Taylor restless.
• The wish to succeed prompted him to do his best.
• Ability to write rapidly is a valuable accomplishment.
• Howard’s unwillingness to desert a friend cost him his life.

In the fourth example, the infinitive has an adverbial modifier (rapidly); and in the fifth, it has a complement, its object (friend). In such instances, two methods of analysis are allowable, as in the case of participial phrases (§ 469).

IV. POSSESSIVES

471. The subject may be modified by a substantive in the possessive case.

Such a substantive may be called a possessive modifier.

• Napoleon’s tomb is in Paris.
• A man’s house is his castle.
• One’s taste in reading changes as one grows older.
• A moment’s thought would have saved me.
• The squirrel’s teeth grow rapidly.
• The Indians’ camp was near the river.
• His name is Alfred.
• Your carriage has arrived.

In each of these examples, a substantive in the possessive case modifies the subject by limiting its meaning precisely as an adjective would do.

Note. An adjective phrase may often be substituted for a possessive. Thus, in the first example, instead of “Napoleon’s tomb” one may say “the tomb of Napoleon” (§ 93).

V. APPOSITIVES

472. The subject may be modified by a substantive in apposition (§ 88, 5).

• Meredith the carpenter lives in that house.
• Herbert, our captain, has broken his leg.
• The idol of the Aztecs, a grotesque image, was thrown down by the Spaniards.
• Many books, both pamphlets and bound volumes, littered the table. [Here the subject (books) is modified by two appositives.]

Appositives often have modifiers of their own.

473. A noun clause may be used as an appositive, and so may be an adjective modifier (§ 386).

• The question whether Antonio was a citizen was settled in the affirmative. [Here the italicized clause is used as a noun in apposition with question.]
• The statement that water freezes seems absurd to a native of the torrid zone. [The clause that water freezes is in apposition with statement.]

An adjective in the appositive position is often called an appositive adjective (§ 172). “A sword, keen and bright, flashed from the soldier’s scabbard.”

MODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE

474. The simple predicate, being a verb or verb-phrase, can have only adverbial modifiers.

The simple predicate may be modified by (1) an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause, (2) an infinitive, (3) an adverbial objective, (4) a nominative absolute, (5) an indirect object, (6) a cognate object.

I. ADVERB, ADVERBIAL PHRASE, ADVERBIAL CLAUSE

475. The simple predicate may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause.

• The landlord collects his rents {monthly. | on the first of every month. | when the first of the month comes.}
• The old schoolhouse stands {there. | at the cross-roads. | where the roads meet.}
• We left the hall {early. | before the last speech. | while the last speech was being delivered.}

In each of these groups, the simple predicate of the first sentence is modified by an adverb, that of the second by an adverbial phrase, and that of the third by an adverbial clause.

Most adverbial phrases are prepositional (§ 42).

Peculiar adverbial phrases are:—

• to and fro,
• now and then,
• up and down,
• again and again,
• first and last,
• full speed,
• full tilt,
• hit or miss,
• more or less,
• head first,
• upside down,
• inside out,
• sink or swim,
• cash down.

476. An adverbial clause that modifies a verb may be introduced by (1) a relative adverb, or (2) a subordinate conjunction.

I. Relative Adverbs

• Our colonel was always found where the fighting was fiercest.
• When I give the signal, press the button.
• Whenever I call, you refuse to see me.
• Miller arrived after the play had begun.
• Everybody listened while the vagrant told his story.
• My uncle laughed until the tears came.
• The prisoner has not been seen since he made his escape.

II. Subordinate Conjunctions

• Archer resigned because his health failed.
• I will give the address if you will let me choose my subject.
• Brandon insisted on walking, although the roads were dangerous.
• The child ran with all her might lest she should be too late.
• I gave you a front seat in order that you might hear.
• The town lies at the base of a lofty cliff so that it is sheltered from the north wind.

II. INFINITIVE

477. The simple predicate may be modified by an infinitive (§ 323).

• He lay down to rest.
• I stopped to listen.
• The fire continued to burn.
• The wind began to subside.
• Jack worked hard to fell the tree.
• Will did his best to win the prize.
• Kate began to weep bitterly.
• That draughtsman seems to be remarkably skilful.

The infinitive may have a complement or a modifier, as in the last four examples.

III. ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE

478. The simple predicate may be modified by an adverbial objective (§ 109).

• I have waited ages.
• We have walked miles.
• Arthur practised weeks.

The addition of modifiers to the adverbial objective makes an adverbial phrase.

• Walter ran the entire distance.
• He stayed a whole day.
• I will forgive you this time.
• He came at me full tilt.
• The wind blew all night.
• Come with me a little way.

In the first sentence, the adverbial phrase the entire distance modifies the verb ran as an adverb would do. This phrase consists of the noun distance with its adjective modifiers, the and entire.

IV. NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE

479. The simple predicate may be modified by a nominative absolute (§ 345).

A substantive in the absolute construction makes with its modifiers an adverbial phrase.

• The ship having arrived, we all embarked.
• We shall sail on Tuesday, weather permitting.
• That done, repair to Pompey’s theatre.
• The bridge across the chasm being only a single tree trunk, we hesitated to attempt the passage.

In the first sentence, the adverbial absolute phrase, the ship having arrived, is equivalent to the adverbial prepositional phrase, on the arrival of the ship, and defines the time of the action expressed by the verb embarked.

V. INDIRECT OBJECT

480. The simple predicate may be modified by an indirect object (§ 105).

• He gave me a watch. [= He gave a watch to me.]
• Tom told me the whole story. [= Tom told the whole story to me.]

In these sentences, the indirect object me, being equivalent to a prepositional phrase, is an adverbial modifier.

The objective of service (§ 106) is also an adverbial modifier.

VI. COGNATE OBJECT

481. The simple predicate may be modified by a cognate object or by a phrase containing such an object (§ 108).

• The officer looked daggers at me [= looked at me angrily].
• The shepherd sang a merry song [= sang merrily].
• The skipper laughed a scornful laugh [= laughed scornfully].

In the first sentence, the cognate object (daggers) modifies the predicate verb (looked) as the adverb angrily would do. It is therefore an adverbial modifier. In the second and third sentences the modifier of the predicate verb (sang, laughed) is an adverbial phrase consisting of a cognate object (song, laugh) with its adjective modifiers (a merry, a scornful).