CHAPTER X
CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH

376. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate.

A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause (§ 46).

377. A subordinate clause may be introduced by (1) a relative or an interrogative pronoun, (2) a relative or an interrogative adverb, (3) a subordinate conjunction.

The relative pronouns are: who, which, what, that (= who or which), as (after such or same), and the compound relatives whoever, whichever, whatever. Their uses have already been studied (pp. 66–73).

The chief relative adverbs are: where, whence, whither, wherever, when, whenever, while, before, after, till, until, since, as, how, why (p. 86).

The interrogative pronouns are: who, which, what (§§ 163–165).

The interrogative adverbs are: where, when, whence, whither, how, why.

The most important subordinate conjunctions are: because, since (= because), though, although, if, unless, that (in order that, so that), lest, as, as if, as though, than, whether (whether ... or).

378. According to their use as parts of speech, subordinate clauses are adjective, adverbial, or noun clauses.

I. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

379. A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause (§ 47).

In each of these groups, a noun (men, spots) is modified (1) by an adjective, (2) by an adjective phrase, (3) by an adjective clause. The sense remains unchanged.

380. Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by relative pronouns, (2) by relative adverbs of place (where, whence, whither, etc.) or time (when, while, etc.).

II. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

381. A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial clause (§ 47).

In each of these groups, the verb (spoke, stands, pay) is modified (1) by an adverb, (2) by an adverbial phrase, (3) by an adverbial clause.

382. Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by relative adverbs (when, where, before, etc.); (2) by subordinate conjunctions (if, though, because, etc.); (3) by relative or interrogative pronouns.

383. Adverbial clauses oftenest modify verbs, but they are also common as modifiers of adjectives and adverbs.

384. An adverbial clause with that may be used to modify verbs and adjectives.

Note. In this use that is equivalent either to “because” or to “as to the fact that.” The clause may be explained as a noun clause in the adverbial objective construction (§ 109).

For the classification of adverbial clauses according to their meaning (place, time, cause, concession, etc.), see pp. 163–182.

III. NOUN (OR SUBSTANTIVE) CLAUSES

385. A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or substantive) clause (§ 47).

In each of these groups a noun (agreement, victory, etc.) is replaced (1) by an infinitive, (2) by a noun clause. In the first two examples, the noun clause is the subject; in the last two, it is the object of a verb (feared, expect).

386. Noun clauses may be used in any of the more important constructions of nouns:—(1) as subject, (2) as direct object of a transitive verb, (3) in apposition with a substantive, (4) as a predicate nominative.

387. Noun clauses may be introduced (1) by the subordinate conjunctions that, whether (whether ... or), and if (in the sense of whether); (2) by the interrogative pronouns who, which, what; (3) by the interrogative adverbs where, whence, whither, how, why, when (§ 196).

388. Noun clauses are common as objects of verbs (1) of commanding, desiring, etc.; (2) of telling, thinking, etc.; (3) of asking, doubting, etc.

See (1) clauses of purpose (§ 406); (2) indirect discourse (§§ 431–437); (3) indirect questions (§ 443).

Object clauses frequently omit that (§ 367).

For the infinitive clause replacing a that-clause as object, see §§ 324–325.

389. A noun clause may be used as the retained object of a passive verb (§ 253).

Active Voice (Clause as Object) Passive Voice (Retained Object)
They informed me that the train was late. I was informed that the train was late.
Charles told us that the ice was thin. We were told that the ice was thin.
They asked me whether (or if) I liked tennis. I was asked whether I liked tennis.

390. A noun clause may be the object of a preposition.

For a noun clause used as an adverbial objective, see § 384.

391. Noun clauses with that are common in the predicate when the expletive it is the grammatical subject (§ 120, 2).

In such sentences the real subject of the thought is the clause. This, however, may be regarded as grammatically in apposition with it, as if one said “It (that war was at hand) was plain.”

Note. This useful idiom enables us to adopt a kind of inverted order (§ 5), and thus to shift the emphasis. Contrast “That war was at hand was plain” with “It was plain that war was at hand.” In the former sentence, the noun clause is made prominent; in the latter, the adjective plain.

392. The following sentences, taken from distinguished authors of different periods, illustrate the usefulness of the noun clause in its various constructions.