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Title: Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries, Vol. 2

Author: Henry Hallam

Release date: October 2, 2013 [eBook #43869]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

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THE WORKS OF HENRY HALLAM.

INTRODUCTION

TO THE

LITERATURE OF EUROPE

IN THE FIFTEENTH, SIXTEENTH,
AND
SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES.

HENRY HALLAM, F.R.A.S.,

CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCES
IN THE FRENCH INSTITUTE

VOLUME II.

WARD, LOCK & CO.,

LONDON: WARWICK HOUSE, SALISBURY SQUARE, E.C.
NEW YORK: BOND STREET.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.
ON THE GENERAL STATE OF LITERATURE IN THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE END OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.
	Page
Retrospect of Learning in Middle Ages Necessary	1
Loss of learning in Fall of Roman Empire	1
Boethius—his Consolation of Philosophy	1
Rapid Decline of Learning in Sixth Century	2
A Portion remains in the Church	2
Prejudices of the Clergy against Profane Learning	2
Their Uselessness in preserving it	3
First Appearances of reviving Learning in Ireland and England	3
Few Schools before the Age of Charlemagne	3
Beneficial Effects of those Established by him	4
The Tenth Century more progressive than usually supposed	4
Want of Genius in the Dark Ages	5
Prevalence of bad Taste	5
Deficiency of poetical Talent	5
Imperfect State of Language may account for this	6
Improvement at beginning of Twelfth Century	6
Leading Circumstances in Progress of Learning	6
Origin of the University of Paris	6
Modes of treating the Science of Theology	6
Scholastic Philosophy—its Origin	7
Roscelin	7
Progress of Scholasticism; Increase of University of Paris	8
Universities founded	8
Oxford	8
Collegiate Foundations not derived from the Saracens	9
Scholastic Philosophy promoted by Mendicant Friars	9
Character of this Philosophy	10
It prevails least in Italy	10
Literature in Modern Languages	10
Origin of the French, Spanish, and Italian Languages	10
Corruption of colloquial Latin in the Lower Empire	11
Continuance of Latin in Seventh Century	12
It is changed to a new Language in Eighth and Ninth	12
Early Specimens of French	13
Poem on Boethius	13
Provençal Grammar	14
Latin retained in use longer in Italy	14
French of Eleventh Century	14
Metres of Modern Languages	15
Origin of Rhyme in Latin	16
Provençal and French Poetry	16
Metrical Romances—Havelok the Dane	18
Diffusion of French Language	19
German Poetry of Swabian Period	19
Decline of German Poetry	20
Poetry of France and Spain	21
Early Italian Language	22
Dante and Petrarch	22
Change of Anglo-Saxon to English	22
Layamon	23
Progress of English Language	23
English of the Fourteenth Century—Chaucer, Gower	24
General Disuse of French in England	24
State of European Languages about 1400	25
Ignorance of Reading and Writing in darker Ages	25
Reasons for supposing this to have diminished after 1100	26
Increased Knowledge of Writing in Fourteenth Century	27
Average State of Knowledge in England	27
Invention of Paper	28
Linen Paper when first used	28
Cotton Paper	28
Linen Paper as old as 1100	28
Known to Peter of Clugni	29
And in Twelfth and Thirteenth Century	29
Paper of mixed Materials	29
Invention of Paper placed by some too low	29
Not at first very important	30
Importance of Legal Studies	30
Roman Laws never wholly unknown	31
Irnerius—his first Successors	31
Their Glosses	31
Abridgements of Law—Accursius’s Corpus Glossatum	31
Character of early Jurists	32
Decline of Jurists after Accursius	32
Respect paid to him at Bologna	33
Scholastic Jurists—Bartolus	33
Inferiority of Jurists in Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries	34
Classical Literature and Taste in dark Ages	34
Improvement in Tenth and Eleventh Centuries	34
Lanfranc and his Schools	35
Italy—Vocabulary of Papias	36
Influence of Italy upon Europe	36
Increased copying of Manuscripts	36
John of Salisbury	36
Improvement of Classical Taste in Twelfth Century	37
Influence of increased Number of Clergy	38
Decline of Classical Literature in Thirteenth Century	38
Relapse into Barbarism	38
No Improvement in Fourteenth Century—Richard of Bury	39
Library formed by Charles V. at Paris	39
Some Improvement in Italy during Thirteenth Century	40
Catholicon of Balbi	40
Imperfection of early Dictionaries	40
Restoration of Letters due to Petrarch	40
Character of his Style	41
His Latin Poetry	41
John of Ravenna	41
Gasparin of Barziza	42
CHAPTER II.
ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1400 TO 1440.
Zeal for Classical Literature in Italy	42
Poggio Bracciolini	42
Latin Style of that Age indifferent	43
Gasparin of Barziza	43
Merits of his Style	43
Victorin of Feltre	44
Leonard Aretin	44
Revival of Greek Language in Italy	44
Early Greek Scholars of Europe	44
Under Charlemagne and his Successors	45
In the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries	45
In the Twelfth	46
In the Thirteenth	46
Little Appearance of it in the Fourteenth Century	47
Some Traces of Greek in Italy	47
Corruption of Greek Language itself	47
Character of Byzantine Literature	48
Petrarch and Boccace learn Greek	48
Few acquainted with the Language in their Time	49
It is taught by Chrysoloras about 1395	49
His Disciples	49
Translations from Greek into Latin	50
Public Encouragement delayed	51
But fully accorded before 1440	51
Emigration of learned Greeks to Italy	52
Causes of Enthusiasm for Antiquity in Italy	52
Advanced State of Society	52
Exclusive Study of Antiquity	53
Classical Learning in France low	53
Much more so in England	53
Library of Duke of Gloucester	54
Gerard Groot’s College at Deventer	54
Physical Sciences in Middle Ages	55
Arabian Numerals and Method	55
Proofs of them in Thirteenth Century	56
Mathematical Treatises	56
Roger Bacon	57
His Resemblance to Lord Bacon	57
English Mathematicians of Fourteenth Century	57
Astronomy	58
Alchemy	58
Medicine	58
Anatomy	58
Encyclopædic Works of Middle Ages	58
Vincent of Beauvais	59
Berchorius	59
Spanish Ballads	59
Metres of Spanish Poetry	60
Consonant and assonant Rhymes	60
Nature of the Glosa	61
The Cancionero General	61
Bouterwek’s Character of Spanish Songs	61
John II.	62
Poets of his Court	62
Charles, Duke of Orleans	62
English Poetry	62
Lydgate	63
James I. of Scotland	63
Restoration of Classical Learning due to Italy	63
Character of Classical Poetry lost in Middle Ages	64
New School of Criticism in Modern Languages	64
Effect of Chivalry on Poetry	64
Effect of Gallantry towards Women	64
Its probable Origin	64
It is shown in old Teutonic Poetry; but appears in the Stories of Arthur	65
Romances of Chivalry of two Kinds	65
Effect of Difference of Religion upon Poetry	66
General Tone of Romance	66
Popular Moral Fictions	66
Exclusion of Politics from Literature	67
Religious Opinions	67
Attacks on the Church	67
Three Lines of Religious Opinions in Fifteenth Century	67
Treatise de Imitatione Christi	68
Scepticism—Defences of Christianity	69
Raimond de Sebonde	69
His Views misunderstood	69
His real Object	70
Nature of his Arguments	70
CHAPTER III.
ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1440 TO THE CLOSE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
The year 1440 not chosen as an Epoch	71
Continual Progress of Learning	71
Nicolas V.	71
Justice due to his Character	72
Poggio on the Ruins of Rome	72
Account of the East, by Conti	72
Laurentius Valla	72
His Attack on the Court of Rome	72
His Treatise on the Latin Language	73
Its Defects	73
Heeren’s Praise of it	73
Valla’s Annotations on the New Testament	73
Fresh Arrival of Greeks in Italy	74
Platonists and Aristotelians	74
Their Controversy	74
Marsilius Ficinus	75
Invention of Printing	75
Block Books	75
Gutenberg and Costar’s Claims	75
Progress of the Invention	76
First printed Bible	76
Beauty of the Book	77
Early printed Sheets	77
Psalter of 1547—Other early Books	77
Bible of Pfister	77
Greek first taught at Paris	78
Leave unwillingly granted	78
Purbach—his Mathematical Discoveries	78
Other Mathematicians	78
Progress of Printing in Germany	79
Introduced into France	79
Caxton’s first Works	79
Printing exercised in Italy	79
Lorenzo de’ Medici	80
Italian Poetry of Fifteenth Century	80
Italian Prose of same Age	80
Giostra of Politian	80
Paul II. persecutes the Learned	81
Mathias Corvinus	81
His Library	81
Slight Signs of Literature in England	81
Paston Letters	82
Low Condition of Public Libraries	83
Rowley	83
Clotilde de Surville	83
Number of Books printed in Italy	83
First Greek printed	84
Study of Antiquities	84
Works on that Subject	84
Publications in Germany	85
In France	85
In England, by Caxton	85
In Spain	85
Translations of Scripture	85
Revival of Literature in Spain	86
Character of Labrixa	86
Library of Lorenzo	87
Classics corrected and explained	87
Character of Lorenzo	87
Prospect from his Villa at Fiesole	87
Platonic Academy	88
Disputationes Camaldulenses of Landino	88
Philosophical Dialogues	89
Paulus Cortesius	89
Schools in Germany	89
Study of Greek at Paris	91
Controversy of Realists and Nominalists	91
Scotus	91
Ockham	92
Nominalists in University of Paris	92
Low State of Learning in England	92
Mathematics	93
Regiomontanus	93
Arts of Delineation	93
Maps	94
Geography	94
Greek printed in Italy	94
Hebrew printed	95
Miscellanies of Politian	95
Their Character, by Heeren	95
His Version of Herodian	96
Cornucopia of Perotti	96
Latin Poetry of Politian	96
Italian Poetry of Lorenzo	97
Pulci	97
Character of Morgante Maggiore	97
Platonic Theology of Ficinus	98
Doctrine of Averroes on the Soul	98
Opposed by Ficinus	99
Desire of Man to explore Mysteries	99
Various Methods employed	99
Reason and Inspiration	99
Extended Inferences from Sacred Books	99
Confidence in Traditions	100
Confidence in Individuals as inspired	100
Jewish Cabbala	100
Picus of Mirandola	101
His Credulity in the Cabbala	101
His Literary Performances	102
State of Learning in Germany	102
Agricola	103
Renish Academy	103
Reuchlin	104
French Language and Poetry	104
European Drama	104
Latin	104
Orfeo of Politian	105
Origin of Dramatic Mysteries	105
Their early Stage	105
Extant English Mysteries	105
First French Theatre	106
Theatrical Machinery	107
Italian Religious Dramas	107
Moralities	107
Farces	107
Mathematical Works	107
Leo Baptista Alberti	108
Lionardo da Vinci	108
Aldine Greek Editions	109
Decline of Learning in Italy	110
Hermolaus Barbarus	111
Mantuan	111
Pontanus	111
Neapolitan Academy	112
Boiardo	112
Francesco Bello	113
Italian Poetry near the End of the Century	113
Progress of Learning in France and Germany	113
Erasmus—his Diligence	114
Budæus—his early Studies	114
Latin not well written in France	115
Dawn of Greek Learning in England	115
Erasmus comes to England	116
He publishes his Adages	116
Romantic Ballads of Spain	116
Pastoral Romances	117
Portuguese Lyric Poetry	117
German popular Books	117
Historical Works	118
Philip de Comines	118
Algebra	118
Events from 1490 to 1500	119
Close of Fifteenth Century	119
Its Literature nearly neglected	119
Summary of its Acquisitions	119
Their Imperfection	120
Number of Books printed	120
Advantages already reaped from Printing	120
Trade of Bookselling	121
Books sold by Printers	121
Price of Books	122
Form of Books	122
Exclusive Privileges	122
Power of Universities over Bookselling	123
Restraints on Sale of Printed Books	124
Effect of Printing on the Reformation	124
CHAPTER IV.
ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1500 TO 1520.
Decline of Learning in Italy	125
Press of Aldus	125
His Academy	126
Dictionary of Calepio	126
Books printed in Germany	126
First Greek Press at Paris	126
Early Studies of Melanchthon	127
Learning in England	127
Erasmus and Budæus	128
Study of Eastern Languages	128
Dramatic Works	128
Calisto and Melibœa	128
Its Character	129
Juan de la Enzina	129
Arcadia of Sanazzaro	129
Asolani of Bembo	130
Dunbar	130
Anatomy of Zerbi	130
Voyages of Cadamosto	130
Leo X., his Patronage of Letters	131
Roman Gymnasium	131
Latin Poetry	132
Italian Tragedy	132
Sophonisba of Trissino	132
Rosmunda of Rucellai	132
Comedies of Ariosto	132
Books printed in Italy	133
Cælius Rhodiginus	133
Greek printed in France and Germany	133
Greek Scholars in these Countries	134
College at Alcala and Louvain	134
Latin Style in France	135
Greek Scholars in England	135
Mode of Teaching in Schools	136
Few Classical Works printed here	137
State of Learning in Scotland	137
Utopia of More	137
Inconsistency in his Opinions	138
Learning restored in France	138
Jealousy of Erasmus and Budæus	138
Character of Erasmus	139
His Adages severe on Kings	139
Instances in illustration	140
His Greek Testament	142
Patrons of Letters in Germany	142
Resistance to Learning	143
Unpopularity of the Monks	145
The Book excites Odium	145
Erasmus attacks the Monks	145
Their Contention with Reuchlin	145
Origin of the Reformation	146
Popularity of Luther	147
Simultaneous Reform by Zwingle	147
Reformation prepared beforehand	147
Dangerous Tenets of Luther	148
Real Explanation of them	149
Orlando Furioso	150
Its Popularity	150
Want of Seriousness	150
A Continuation of Boiardo	150
In some Points inferior	151
Beauties of its Style	151
Accompanied with Faults	151
Its Place as a Poem	152
Amadis de Gaul	152
Gringore	152
Hans Sachs	152
Stephen Hawes	153
Change in English Language	153
Skelton	154
Oriental Languages	154
Pomponatius	155
Raymond Lully	155
His Method	155
Peter Martyr’s Epistles	156
CHAPTER V.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Superiority of Italy in Taste	157
Admiration of Antiquity	158
Sadolet	158
Bembo	159
Ciceronianus of Erasmus	159
Scaliger’s Invective against it	160
Editions of Cicero	160
Alexander ab Alexandro	160
Works on Roman Antiquities	161
Greek less Studied in Italy	161
Schools of Classical Learning	161
Budæus—his Commentaries on Greek	161
Their Character	162
Greek Grammars and Lexicons	162
Editions of Greek Authors	163
Latin Thesaurus of R. Stephens	163
Progress of Learning in France	164
Learning in Spain	165
Effects of Reformation on Learning	165
Sturm’s Account of German Schools	165
Learning in Germany	166
In England—Linacre	166
Lectures in the Universities	166
Greek perhaps Taught to Boys	167
Teaching of Smith at Cambridge	167
Succeeded by Cheke	168
Ascham’s Character of Cambridge	168
Wood’s Account of Oxford	168
Education of Edward and his Sisters	169
The Progress of Learning is still slow	169
Want of Books and Public Libraries	169
Destruction of Monasteries no Injury to Learning	169
Ravisius Textor	170
Conrad Gesner	170
CHAPTER VI.
HISTORY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Progress of the Reformation	171
Interference of Civil Power	171
Excitement of Revolutionary Spirit	172
Growth of Fanaticism	172
Differences of Luther and Zwingle	172
Confession of Augsburg	173
Conduct of Erasmus	173
Estimate of it	174
His Controversy with Luther	174
Character of his Epistles	176
His Alienation from the Reformers increases	176
Appeal of the Reformers to the Ignorant	176
Parallel of those Times with the Present	177
Calvin	177
His Institutes	177
Increased Differences among Reformers	178
Reformed Tenets spread in England	178
In Italy	178
Italian Heterodoxy	179
Its Progress in the Literary Classes	180
Servetus	180
Arianism in Italy	181
Protestants in Spain and Low Countries	181
Order of Jesuits	181
Their Popularity	181
Council of Trent	182
Its Chief Difficulties	182
Character of Luther	182
Theological Writings—Erasmus	183
Melanchthon—Romish Writers	183
This Literature nearly forgotten	184
Sermons	184
Spirit of the Reformation	184
Limits of Private Judgment	185
Passions instrumental in Reformation	185
Establishment of new Dogmatism	186
Editions of Scripture	186
Translations of Scripture	186
In English	187
In Italy and Low Countries	187
Latin Translations	187
French Translations	188
CHAPTER VII.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE, MORAL, AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY, AND OF JURISPRUDENCE, IN EUROPE, FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Logic included under this head	188
Slow Defeat of Scholastic Philosophy	188
It is sustained by the Universities and Regulars	188
Commentators on Aristotle	188
Attack of Vives on Scholastics	189
Contempt of them in England	189
Veneration for Aristotle	189
Melanchthon countenances him	189
His own Philosophical Treatises	190
Aristotelians of Italy	190
University of Paris	190
New Logic of Ramus	190
It meets with unfair treatment	191
Its Merits and Character	191
Buhle’s account of it	191
Paracelsus	191
His Impostures	192
And Extravagancies	192
Cornelius Agrippa	192
His pretended Philosophy	193
His Sceptical Treatise	193
Cardan	193
Influence of Moral Writers	194
Cortegiano of Castiglione	194
Marco Aurelio of Guevara	194
His Menosprecio di Corte	194
Perez d’Oliva	195
Ethical Writings of Erasmus and Melanchthon	195
Sir T. Elyot’s Governor	195
Severity of Education	196
He seems to avoid Politics	196
Nicholas Machiavel	196
His motives in writing the Prince	197
Some of his Rules not immoral	197
But many dangerous	197
Its only Palliation	198
His Discourses on Livy	198
Their leading Principles	198
Their Use and Influence	199
His History of Florence	199
Treatises on Venetian Government	199
Calvin’s Political Principles	199
Jurisprudence confined to Roman Law	200
The Laws not well arranged	200
Adoption of the entire System	200
Utility of General Learning to Lawyers	200
Alciati—his Reform of Law	201
Opposition to him	201
Agustino	201
CHAPTER VIII.
HISTORY OF THE LITERATURE OF TASTE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Poetry of Bembo	201
Its Beauties and Defects	202
Character of Italian Poetry	202
Alamanni	202
Vittoria Colonna	202
Satires of Ariosto and Alamanni	203
Alamanni	203
Rucellai	203
Trissino	203
Berni	203
Spanish Poets	204
Boscan and Garcilasso	204
Mendoza	204
Saa di Miranda	205
Ribeyro	205
French Poetry	205
Marot	206
Its Metrical Structure	206
German Poetry	206
Hans Sachs	206
German Hymn	206
Theuerdanks of Pfintzing	206
English Poetry—Lyndsay	206
Wyatt and Surrey	207
Dr. Nott’s Character of them	207
Perhaps rather exaggerated	208
Surrey improves our versification	208
Introduces Blank Verse	208
Dr. Nott’s Hypothesis as to his Metre	208
It seems too extensive	209
Politeness of Wyatt and Surrey	209
Latin Poetry	210
Sannazarius	210
Vida	210
Fracastorius	210
Latin Verse not to be disdained	210
Other Latin Poets in Italy	211
In Germany	211
Italian Comedy	211
Machiavel	211
Aretin	211
Tragedy	212
Sperone	212
Cinthio	212
Spanish Drama	212
Torres Naharro	212
Lope de Rueda	212
Gil Vicente	213
Mysteries and Moralities in France	213
German Theatre—Hans Sachs	213
Moralities and Similar Plays in England	214
They are turned to religious Satire	214
Latin Plays	214
First English Comedy	215
Romances of Chivalry	215
Novels	215
Rabelais	216
Contest of Latin and Italian Languages	216
Influence of Bembo in this	217
Apology for Latinists	217
Character of the Controversy	217
Life of Bembo	217
Character of Italian and Spanish Style	218
English Writers	218
More	218
Ascham	218
Italian Criticism	218
Bembo	218
Grammarians and Critics in France	219
Orthography of Meigret	219
Cox’s Art of Rhetoric	219
CHAPTER IX.
ON THE SCIENTIFIC AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Geometrical Treatises	220
Fernel Rhœticus	220
Cardan and Tartaglia	220
Cubic Equations	220
Beauty of the Discovery	221
Cardan’s other Discoveries	221
Imperfections of Algebraic Language	222
Copernicus	222
Revival of Greek Medicine	223
Linacre and other Physicians	223
Medical Innovators	224
Paracelsus	224
Anatomy	224
Berenger	224
Vesalius	224
Portal’s Account of him	225
His Human Dissections	225
Fate of Vesalius	225
Other Anatomists	225
Imperfection of the Science	225
Botany—Botanical Gardens	226
Ruel	226
Fuchs	226
Matthioli	226
Low State of Zoology	226
Agricola	227
Hebrew	227
Elias Levita—Pellican	227
Arabic and Oriental Literature	227
Geography of Grynæus	228
Apianus	228
Munster	228
Voyages	228
Oviedo	228
Historical Works	228
Italian Academies	229
They pay regard to the Language	229
Their fondness for Petrarch	229
They become numerous	229
Their Distinctions	230
Evils connected with them	230
They succeed less in Germany	230
Libraries	230
CHAPTER X.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Progress of Philology	231
First Editions of Classics	231
Change in Character of Learning	232
Cultivation of Greek	232
Principal Scholars—Turnebus	232
Petrus Victorius	233
Muretus	233
Gruter’s Thesaurus Criticus	234
Editions of Greek and Latin Authors	235
Tacitus of Lipsius	235
Horace of Lambinus	235
Of Cruquius	236
Henry Stephens	236
Lexicon of Constantin	237
Thesaurus of Stephens	237
Abridged by Scapula	238
Hellenismus of Caninius	239
Vergara’s Grammar	239
Grammars of Ramus and Sylburgius	239
Camerarius—Canter—Robortellus	240
Editions by Sylburgius	241
Neander	241
Gesner	241
Decline of Taste in Germany	242
German Learning	242
Greek Verses of Rhodomanu	242
Learning Declines	243
Except in Catholic Germany	243
Philological Works of Stephens	243
Style of Lipsius	244
Minerva of Sanctius	244
Orations of Muretus	244
Panegyric of Ruhnkenius	244
Defects of his Style	245
Epistles of Manutius	245
Care of the Italian Latinists	245
Perpinianus—Osorius—Maphœus	246
Buchanan—Haddon	246
Sigonius, De Consolatione	246
Decline of Taste and Learning in Italy	247
Joseph Scaliger	247
Isaac Casaubon	248
General Result	249
Learning in England under Edward and Mary	249
Revival under Elizabeth	249
Greek Lectures at Cambridge	250
Few Greek Editions in England	250
School Books enumerated	250
Greek taught in Schools	251
Greek better known after 1580	251
Editions of Greek	252
And of Latin Classics	252
Learning lower than in Spain	252
Improvement at the End of the Century.	253
Learning in Scotland	253
Latin little used in Writing	253
Early Works on Antiquities	254
P. Manutius on Roman Laws	254
Manutius, De Civitate	254
Panvinius—Sigonius	255
Gruchius	255
Sigonius on Athenian Polity	256
Patrizzi and Lipsius on Roman Militia	256
Lipsius and other Antiquaries	256
Saville on Roman Militia	257
Numismatics	257
Mythology	257
Scaliger’s Chronology	258
Julian Period	258
CHAPTER XI.
HISTORY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Diet of Augsburg in 1555	259
Progress of Protestantism	259
Its Causes	260
Wavering of Catholic Princes	260
Extinguished in Italy and Spain	260
Reaction of Catholicity	260
Especially in Germany	261
Discipline of the Clergy	261
Influence of Jesuits	261
Their Progress	262
Their Colleges	262
Jesuit Seminary at Rome	262
Patronage of Gregory XIII.	262
Conversions in Germany and France	263
Causes of this Reaction	263
A rigid Party in the Church	264
Its Efforts at Trent	264
No Compromise in Doctrine	265
Consultation of Cassander	265
Bigotry of Protestant Churches	266
Tenets of Melanchthon	266
A Party hostile to him	267
Form of Concord, 1576	267
Controversy raised by Baius	267
Treatise of Molina on Free will	268
Protestant Tenets	268
Trinitarian Controversy	268
Religious Intolerance	270
Castalio	270
Answered by Beza	271
Aconcio	271
Minus Celsus, Koornhert	271
Decline of Protestantism	272
Desertion of Lipsius	272
Jewell’s Apology	272
English Theologians	272
Bellarmin	273
Topics of Controversy changed	273
It turns on Papal Power	274
This upheld by the Jesuits	274
Claim to depose Princes	274
Bull against Elizabeth	274
And Henry IV.	275
Deposing Power owned in Spain	275
Asserted by Bellarmin	275
Methods of Theological Doctrine	275
Loci Communes	275
In the Protestant and Catholic Church	276
Catharin	276
Critical and Expository Writings	276
Ecclesiastical Historians	277
Le Clerc’s Character of them	277
Deistical Writers	277
Wierus, De Præstigiis	278
Scot on Witchcraft	278
Authenticity of Vulgate	278
Latin Versions and Editions by Catholics	278
By Protestants	279
Versions into Modern Languages	279
CHAPTER XII.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Predominance of Aristotelian Philosophy	279
Scholastic and genuine Aristotelians	280
The former class little remembered	280
The others not much better known	280
Schools of Pisa and Padua	280
Cesalpini	280
Sketch of his System	280
Cremonini	281
Opponents of Aristotle	281
Patrizzi	281
System of Telesio	281
Jordano Bruno	282
His Italian Works—Cena de li Ceneri	282
Della Causa, Principio ed Uno	282
Pantheism of Bruno	283
Bruno’s other Writings	284
General Character of his Philosophy	285
Sceptical Theory of Sanchez	286
Logic of Aconcio	286
Nizolius on the Principles of Philosophy	286
Margarita Antoniana of Pereira	287
Logic of Ramus—its Success	288
CHAPTER XIII.
HISTORY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND OF JURISPRUDENCE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Soto, De Justitia	289
Hooker	290
His Theory of Natural Law	290
Doubts felt by others	290
Essays of Montaigne	290
Their Characteristics	290
Writers on Morals in Italy	293
In England	293
Bacon’s Essays	293
Number of Political Writers	294
Oppression of Governments	294
And Spirit generated by it	294
Derived from Classic History	294
From their own and the Jewish	294
Franco Gallia of Hossoman	295
Vindiciæ of Languet	295
Contr’Un of Boetie	295
Buchanan, De Jure Regni	296
Poynet, on Politique Power	296
Its liberal Theory	296
Argues for Tyrannicide	297
The Tenets of Parties swayed by Circumstances	297
Similar Tenets among the Leaguers	298
Rose on the Authority of Christian States over Kings	298
Treatise of Boucher in the same Spirit	299
Answered by Barclay	299
The Jesuits adopt these Tenets	299
Mariana, De Rege	299
Popular Theories in England	300
Hooker	300
Political Memoirs	301
La Noue	301
Lipsius	301
Botero	301
His Remarks on Population	301
Paruta	302
Bodin	302
Analysis of his Treatise called the Republic	302
Authority of Heads of Families	302
Domestic Servitude	303
Origin of Commonwealths	303
Privileges of Citizens	303
Nature of Sovereign Power	304
Forms of Government	304
Despotism and Monarchy	304
Aristocracy	305
Senates and Councils of State	305
Duties of Magistrates	305
Corporations	305
Slaves, part of the State	305
Rise and Fall of States	306
Causes of Revolution	306
Astrological Fancies of Bodin	306
Danger of sudden Changes	307
Judicial Power of the Sovereign	307
Toleration of Religions	307
Influence of Climate on Government	307
Means of obviating Inequality	308
Confiscations—Rewards	308
Fortresses	308
Necessity of Good Faith	309
Census of Property	309
Public Revenues	309
Taxation	309
Adulteration of Coin	310
Superiority of Monarchy	310
Conclusion of the Work	310
Bodin compared with Aristotle and Machiavel	310
And with Montesquieu	310
Golden Age of Jurisprudence	311
Cujacius	311
Eulogies bestowed upon him	311
Cujacius, an Interpreter of Law rather than a Lawyer	312
French Lawyers below Cujacius—Govca and others	312
Opponents of the Roman Law	313
Faber of Savoy	313
Anti-Tribonianus of Hottoman	313
Civil Law not countenanced in France	314
Turamini	314
Cau Law	314
Law of Nations; its early State	314
Francis a Victoria	314
His Opinions on Public Law	315
Ayala, on the Rights of War	315
Albericus Gentilis on Embassies	316
His Treatise on the Rights of War	317
CHAPTER XIV.
HISTORY OF POETRY FROM 1550 TO 1600.
General Character of Italian Poets in this Age	318
Their usual Faults	318
Their Beauties	318
Character given by Muratori	318
Poetry of Casa	318
Of Costanzo	319
Baldi	319
Caro	319
Odes of Celio Magus	319
Coldness of the Amatory Sonnets	320
Studied Imitation of Petrarch	320
Their Fondness for Description	320
Judgment of Italian Critics	320
Bernardino Rota	320
Gaspara Stampa; her Love for Collalto	321
Is ill-requited	322
Her Second Love	322
Style of Gaspara Stampa	322
La Nautica of Baldi	322
Amadigi of Bernardo Tasso	323
Satirical and burlesque Poetry; Aretin	323
Other burlesque Writers	324
Attempts at Latin Metres	324
Poetical Translations	324
Torquato Tasso	324
The Jerusalem excellent in Choice of Subject	324
Superior to Homer and Virgil in some Points	324
Its Characters	325
Excellence of its Style	325
Some Faults in it	325
Defects of the Poem	326
It indicates the peculiar Genius of Tasso	326
Tasso compared to Virgil	326
To Ariosto	326
To the Bolognese Painters	327
Poetry Cultivated under Charles and Philip	327
Luis de Leon	328
Herrera	328
General Tone of Castilian Poetry	329
Castillejo	329
Araucana of Ercilla	329
Many epic Poems in Spain	329
Camœns	330
Defects of the Lusiad	330
Its Excellencies	330
Mickle’s Translation	330
Celebrated Passage in the Lusiad	331
Minor Poems of Camœns	331
Ferreira	331
Spanish Ballads	331
French Poets numerous	332
Change in the Tone of French Poetry	333
Ronsard	333
Other French Poets	334
Du Bartas	334
Pibrac; Desportes	335
French Metre and Versification	335
General character of French Poetry	335
German Poetry	336
Paradise of Dainty Devices	336
Character of this Collection	336
Sackville’s Induction	336
Inferiority of Poets in early years of Elizabeth	337
Gascoyne	337
Spenser’s Shepherd’s Kalendar	337
Sydney’s Character of Contemporary Poets	338
Improvement soon after this Time	338
Relaxation of Moral Austerity	339
Serious Poetry	339
Poetry of Sydney	339
Epithalanium of Spenser	340
Poems of Shakspeare	340
Daniel and Drayton	340
Nosce Teipsum of Davies	340
Satires of Hall, Marston, and Donne	341
Modulation of English Verse	341
Translations of Homer by Chapman	341
Of Tasso by Fairfax	342
Employment of Ancient Measures	342
Number of Poets in this Age	342
Scots and English Ballads	343
The Faery Queen	343
Superiority of the First Book	343
The succeeding Books	344
Spenser’s Sense of Beauty	344
Compared to Ariosto	344
Style of Spenser	345
Inferiority of the latter Books	345
Allegories of the Faery Queen	346
Blemishes in the Diction	346
Admiration of the Faery Queen	346
General Parallel of Italian and English Poetry	347
Decline of Latin Poetry in Italy	347
Compensated in other Countries	347
Lotichius	347
Collections of Latin Poetry by Gruter	348
Characters of some Gallo-Latin Poets	348
Sammarthanus	349
Belgic Poets	349
Scots Poets—Buchanan	349
CHAPTER XV.
HISTORY OF DRAMATIC LITERATURE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Italian Tragedy	350
Pastoral Drama	351
Aminta of Tasso	351
Pastor Fido of Guarini	352
Italian Opera	352
The National Taste revives in the Spanish Drama	353
Lope de Vega	353
His Extraordinary Fertility	353
His Versification	354
His Popularity	354
Character of his Comedies	354
Tragedy of Don Sancho Ortiz	355
His Spiritual Plays	356
Numancia of Cervantes	356
French Theatre—Jodelle	357
Garnier	357
Comedies of Larivey	358
Theatres in Paris	358
English Stage	359
Gammar Gurton’s Needle	359
Gorboduc of Sackville	359
Preference given to the Irregular Form	359
First Theatres	360
Plays of Whetstone and Others	360
Marlowe and his Contemporaries	360
Tamburlaine	361
Blank Verse of Marlowe	361
Marlowe’s Jew of Malta	361
And Faustus	361
His Edward II.	361
Plays whence Henry VI. was taken	361
Peele	362
Greene	362
Other Writers of this Age	363
Heywood’s Woman Killed with Kindness	363
William Shakspeare	364
His First Writings for the Stage	364
Comedy of Errors	365
Love’s Labour Lost	365
Taming of the Shrew	365
Midsummer Night’s Dream	365
Its Machinery	366
Its Language	366
Romeo and Juliet	366
Its Plot	367
Its Beauties and Blemishes	367
The Characters	367
The Language	367
Second Period of Shakspeare	368
The Historical Plays	368
Merchant of Venice	368
As You Like It	369
Jonson’s Every Man in his Humour	369
CHAPTER XVI.
HISTORY OF POLITE LITERATURE IN PROSE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Italian Writers	369
Casa	369
Tasso	370
Firenzuola	370
Character of Italian Prose	370
Italian Letter Writers	370
Davanzati’s Tacitus	371
Jordano Bruno	371
French Writers—Amyot	371
Montaigne; Du Vair	371
Satire Menippée	372
English Writers	372
Ascham	372
Euphues of Lilly	373
Its Popularity	373
Sydney’s Arcadia	374
His Defence of Poesie	374
Hooker	374
Character of Elizabethan Writers	374
State of Criticism	375
Scaliger’s Poetics	375
His Preference of Virgil to Homer	375
His Critique on Modern Latin Poets	376
Critical Influence of the Academics	376
Dispute of Caro and Castelvetro	377
Castelvetro on Aristotle’s Poetics	377
Severity of Castelvetro’s Criticism	377
Ercolano of Varchi	378
Controversy about Dante	378
Academy of Florence	378
Salviati’s Attack on Tasso	379
Pinciano’s Art of Poetry	379
French Treatises of Criticism	379
Wilson’s Art of Rhetorique	379
Gascoyne; Webbe	380
Puttenham’s Art of Poesie	380
Sydney’s Defence of Poesy	380
Novels of Bandello	380
Of Cinthio	381
Of the Queen of Navarre	381
Spanish Romances of Chivalry	381
Diana of Monte-Mayor	382
Novels in the Picaresque Style	382
Guzman d’Alfarache	382
Las Guerras de Granada	383
Sydney’s Arcadia	383
Its Character	383
Inferiority of other English Fictions	384
CHAPTER XVII.
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE FROM 1500 TO 1600.
Tartaglia and Cardan	385
Algebra of Pelletier	385
Record’s Whetstone of Wit	385
Vieta	385
His Discoveries	386
Geometers of this Period	388
Joachim Rhœticus	388
Copernican Theory	388
Tycho Brahe	389
His System	389
Gregorian Calendar	390
Optics	390
Mechanics	390
Statics of Stevinus	391
Hydrostatics	392
Gilbert on the Magnet	392
Gesner’s Zoology	392
Its Character by Cuvier	392
Gesner’s Arrangement	393
His Additions to known Quadrupeds	393
Belon	394
Salviani and Rondelet’s Ichthyology	394
Aldrovandus	394
Botany—Turner	395
Maranta—Botanical Gardens	395
Gesner	396
Dodœns	396
Lobel	396
Clusius	396
Cæsalpin	396
Dalechamps—Bauhin	397
Gerard’s Herbal	397
Anatomy—Fallopius	397
Eustachius	397
Coiter	398
Columbus	398
Circulation of the Blood	398
Medicinal Science	398
Syriac Version of New Testament	399
Hebrew Critics	399
Its Study in England	399
Arabic begins to be Studied	399
Collection of Voyages by Ramusio	400
Curiosity they awakened	400
Other Voyages	401
Accounts of China	401
India and Russia	401
English Discoveries in the Northern Seas	401
Geographical Books—Ortelius	401
Guicciardini	402
French Memoirs	403
Universities in Italy	403
In other Countries	403
Libraries	403
Collections of Antiquities in Italy	404
Pinelli	404
Italian Academies	405
Society of Antiquaries in England	405
New Books and Catalogues of them	406
Literary Correspondence	406
Bibliographical Works	406
Restraints on the Press	407
Index Expurgatorius	407
Its Effects	407
Restrictions in England	407
Latin more employed on this account	408
Influence of Literature	408
CHAPTER XVIII.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Learning of 17th Century less Philological	409
Popularity of Comenius	409
Decline of Greek Learning	410
Casaubon	410
Viger de Idiotismis	411
Weller’s Greek Grammar	411
Labbe and Others	411
Salmasius de Lingua Hellenistica	412
Greek Editions—Savile’s Chrysostom	412
Greek Learning in England	413
Latin Editions—Torrentius	413
Gruter	413
Heinsius	413
Grotius	414
Rutgersius—Reinesius—Barthius	414
Other Critics—English	414
Salmasius	415
Good Writers of Latin	415
Scioppius	416
His Philosophical Grammar	416
His Infamia Famiani	416
Judicium de Stylo Historico	416
Gerard Vossius, de Vitiis Sermonis	417
His Aristarchus	417
Progress of Latin Style	418
Gruter’s Collection of Inscriptions	418
Assisted by Scaliger	419
Works on Roman Antiquity	419
Geography of Cluversius	420
Meursius	420
Ubbo Emmius	420
Chronology of Lydiat—Calvisius	420
Petavius	421
Character of this Work	421
CHAPTER XIX.
HISTORY Of THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Temporal Supremacy of Rome	422
Contest with Venice	423
Father Paul Sarpi	423
History of Council of Trent	424
Gallican Liberties—Richter	424
Perron	425
Decline of Papal Power	425
Unpopularity of the Jesuits	426
Richelieu’s Care of Gallican Liberties	426
Controversy of Catholics and Protestants	426
Increased respect for the Fathers	426
Especially in England—Laud	427
Defections to the Catholic Church	427
Wavering of Casaubon	428
And of Grotius	429
Calixtus	434
His Attempts at Concord	434
High Church Party in England	435
Daillé on the Right Use of the Fathers	435
Chillingworth’s Religion of Protestants	436
Character of this Work	436
Hales on Schism	438
Controversies on Grace and Free will—Augustinian Scheme	438
Semi-pelagian Hypothesis	439
Tenets of the Reformers	439
Rise of Arminianism	440
Episcopius	440
His Writings	440
Their Spirit and Tendency	440
Great Latitude allowed by them	441
Progress of Arminianism	441
Cameron	441
Rise of Jansenism	441
Socinus—Volkelius	442
Crellius—Ruarus	442
Erastianism maintained by Hooker	443
And Grotius	444
His Treatise on Ecclesiastical Power of the State	444
Remark upon this Theory	446
Toleration of Religious Tenets	446
Claimed by the Arminians	446
By the Independents	447
And by Jeremy Taylor	447
His Liberty of Prophesying	447
Boldness of his Doctrines	447
His Notions of Uncertainty in Theological Tenets	448
His low Opinion of the Fathers	448
Difficulty of Finding out Truth	449
Grounds of Toleration	449
Inconsistency of One Chapter	450
His General Defence of Toleration	450
Effect of this Treatise	451
Its Defects	451
Great Erudition of this Period	452
Usher—Petavius	452
Sacred Criticism	452
Grotius—Coccejus	452
English Commentators	453
Style of Preaching	453
English Sermons	453
Of Donne	454
Of Jeremy Taylor	454
Devotional Writings of Taylor and Hall	454
In the Roman	455
And Lutheran Church	455
Infidelity of some Writers—Charron—Vanini	455
Lord Herbert of Cherbury	456
Grotius de Veritate	457
English Translation of the Bible	457
Its Style	457
CHAPTER XX.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Subjects of this Chapter	458
Aristotelians and Ramists	458
No improvement till near the End of the Century	459
Methods of the Universities	459
Scholastic Writers	459
Treatises on Logic	460
Campanella	460
His Theory taken from Telesio	460
Notion of Universal Sensibility	461
His Imagination and Eloquence	461
His Works Published by Admai	462
Basson	463
Berigard	463
Magnen	463
Paracelsists	463
And Theosophists	463
Fludd	464
Jacob Behmen	464
Lord Herbert de Veritate	464
His Axioms	465
Conditions of Truth	465
Instinctive Truths	466
Internal Perceptions	466
Five Notions of Natural Religion	466
Remarks of Gassendi on Herbert	467
Gassendi’s Defence of Epicurus	468
His chief Works after 1650	468
Preparation for the Philosophy of Lord Bacon	468
His Plan of Philosophy	468
Time of its Conception	469
Instauratio Magna	470
First Part—Partitiones Scientiarum	470
Second Part—Novum Organum	470
Third Part—Natural History	470
Fourth Part—Scala Intellectûs	471
Fifth Part—Anticipationes Philosophiæ	471
Sixth Part—Philosophia Secunda	471
Course of studying Lord Bacon	472
Nature of the Baconian Induction	472
His Dislike of Aristotle	474
His Method much required	474
Its Objects	474
Sketch of the Treatise De Augmentis	474
History	474
Poetry	475
Fine Passage on Poetry	475
Natural Theology and Metaphysics	475
Form of Bodies might sometimes be inquired into	475
Final Causes too much slighted	476
Man not included by him in Physics	476
Man—in Body and Mind	476
Logic	476
Extent given it by Bacon	476
Grammar and Rhetoric	477
Ethics	477
Politics	477
Theology	478
Desiderata enumerated by him	478
Novum Organum—First Book	478
Fallacies—Idola	478
Confounded with Idols	478
Second Book of Novum Organum	479
Confidence of Bacon	479
Almost justified of late	480
But should be kept within Bounds	481
Limits to our Knowledge by Sense	481
Inductive Logic—whether confined to Physics	481
Baconian Philosophy built on Observation and Experiment	482
Advantages of the latter	482
Sometimes applicable to Philosophy of Human Mind	483
Less so to Politics and Morals	483
Induction less conclusive on these Subjects	483
Reasons for this Difference	484
Considerations on the other Side	484
Result of the whole	485
Bacon’s Aptitude for Moral Subjects	486
Comparison of Bacon and Galileo	487
His Prejudice against Mathematics	488
Bacon’s Excess of Wit	488
Fame of Bacon on the Continent	489
Early Life of Descartes	491
His beginning to philosophise	491
He retires to Holland	491
His Publications	492
He begins by doubting all	492
His First Step in Knowledge	492
His Mind not Sceptical	493
He arrives at more Certainty	493
His Proof of a Deity	493
Another Proof of it	494
His Deductions from this	494
Primary and Secondary Qualities	495
Objections made to his Meditations	495
Theory of Memory and Imagination	496
Seat of Soul in Pineal Gland	497
Gassendi’s Attacks on the Meditations	497
Superiority of Descartes	497
Stewart’s Remarks on Descartes	498
Paradoxes of Descartes	499
His Just Notions and Definitions	500
His Notion of Substances	501
Not Quite Correct	501
His Notions of Intuitive Truth	501
Treatise on Art of Logic	502
Merits of his Writings	502
His Notions of Free will	502
Fame of his System, and Attacks upon it	503
Controversy with Voet	503
Charges of Plagiarism	504
Recent Increase of his Fame	505
Metaphysical Treatises of Hobbes	505
His Theory of Sensation	506
Coincident with Descartes	506
Imagination and Memory	506
Discourse or Train of Imagination	507
Experience	507
Unconceivableness of Infinity	507
Origin of Language	508
His Political Theory interferes	508
Necessity of Speech exaggerated	509
Use of Names	509
Names Universal not Realities	509
How imposed	510
The Subject continued	510
Names differently imposed	511
Knowledge	511
Reasoning	512
False Reasoning	512
Its frequency	513
Knowledge of Fact not derived from Reasoning	514
Belief	514
Chart of Science	515
Analysis of Passions	515
Good and Evil relative Terms	515
His Paradoxes	515
His Notion of Love	516
Curiosity	516
Difference of Intellectual Capacities	516
Wit and Fancy	517
Differences in the Passions	517
Madness	517
Unmeaning Language	517
Manners	517
Ignorances and Prejudice	518
His Theory of Religion	518
Its supposed Sources	518
CHAPTER XXI.
HISTORY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND OF JURISPRUDENCE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Casuistical Writers	521
Importance of Confession	521
Necessity of Rules for the Confessor	521
Increase of Casuistical Literature	521
Distinction of subjective and objective Morality	522
Directory Office of the Confessor	522
Difficulties of Casuistry	522
Strict and Lax Schemes of it	523
Convenience of the latter	523
Favoured by the Jesuits	523
The Causes of this	523
Extravagance of the strict Casuists	524
Opposite Faults of Jesuits	524
Suarez, De Legibus	524
Titles of his Ten Books	524
Heads of the Second Book	525
Character of such Scholastic Treatises	525
Quotations of Suarez	525
His Definition of Eternal Law	526
Whether God is a Legislator	526
Whether God could permit or commend wrong Actions	527
English Casuists—Perkins—Hall	527
Selden, De Jure Naturali Juxta Hebræos	528
Jewish Theory of Natural Law	528
Seven Precepts of the Sons of Noah	528
Character of Selden’s Work	528
Grotius and Hobbes	528
Charron on Wisdom	529
La Mothe le Vayer—his Dialogues	529
Bacon’s Essays	529
Their Excellence	530
Feltham’s Resolves	530
Browne’s Regligio Medici	531
Selden’s Table Talk	532
Osborn’s Advice to his Son	532
John Valentine Andrax	532
Abandonment of Anti-Monarchical Theories	533
Political Literature becomes historical	533
Bellenden De Statu	534
Campanella’s Politics	534
La Mothe le Vayer	534
Naude’s Coups d’Etat	534
Patriarchal Theory of Government	534
Refuted by Suarez	535
His Opinion of Law	535
Bacon	536
Political Economy	536
Serra on the Means of obtaining Money without Mines	537
His Causes of Wealth	537
His Praise of Venice	537
Low Rate of Exchange not essential to wealth	587
Hobbes.—His Political Works	538
Analysis of his Three Treatises	538
Civil Jurists of this period	543
Suarez on Laws	544
Grotius—De Jure Belli et Pacis	544
Success of this Work	544
Its Originality	545
Its Motive and Object	545
His Authorities	545
Foundation of Natural Law	546
Positive Law	546
Perfect and Imperfect Rights	546
Lawful Cases of War	546
Resistance by Subjects unlawful	547
All Men naturally have Right of War	547
Right of Self-Defence	548
Its Origin and Limitations	548
Right of Occupancy	549
Relinquishment of it	549
Right over Persons—By Generation	549
By Consent	549
In Marriage	549
In Commonwealths	549
Right of Alienating Subjects	549
Alienation by Testament	550
Rights of Property by Positive Law	550
Extinction of Rights	550
Some Casuistical Questions	550
Promises	550
Contracts	551
Considered ethically	551
Promissory Oaths	552
Engagements of Kings towards Subjects	552
Public Treaties	552
Their Interpretation	553
Obligation to repair Injury	553
Rights by Law of Nations	554
Those of Ambassadors	554
Right of Sepulture	554
Punishments	554
Their Responsibility	555
Insufficient Causes of War	556
Duty of avoiding it	556
And Expediency	556
War for the sake of other Subjects	556
Allies	556
Strangers	556
None to Serve in an Unjust War	556
Rights in War	557
Use of Deceit	557
Rules and Customs of Nations	557
Reprisals	557
Declarations of War	557
Rights by law of nations over Enemies	558
Prisoners become Slaves	558
Rights of Postliminium	558
Moral Limitation of Rights in War	558
Moderation required as to spoil	559
And as to Prisoners	559
Also in Conquest	559
And in Restitution to right Owners	559
Promises to Enemies and Pirates	559
Treaties concluded by competent Authority	560
Matters relating to them	561
Truces and Conventions	561
Those of Private persons	561
Objections to Grotius made by Paley unreasonable	561
Reply of Mackintosh	561
Censures of Stewart	562
Answer to them	562
Grotius vindicated against Rousseau	565
His Arrangement	565
His Defects	565
CHAPTER XXII.
HISTORY OF POETRY FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Low Estimation of the Seicentisti	566
Not quite so great as formerly	566
Praise of them by Rubbi	566
Also by Salfi	566
Adone of Marini	567
Its Character	567
And Popularity	567
Secchia Rapita of Tassoni	568
Chiabrera	569
His Followers	569
The Styles of Spanish Poetry	570
The Romances	570
The Brothers Argensola	570
Villegas	571
Quevedo	571
Defects of Taste in Spanish Verse	571
Pedantry and far-fetched Allusions	572
Gongora	572
The Schools formed by him	573
Malherbe	573
Criticisms upon his Poetry	574
Satires of Regnier	574
Racan—Maynard	574
Voiture	574
Sarrasin	575
Low state of German Literature	575
Literary Societies	575
Opitz	575
His Followers	576
Dutch Poetry	576
Spiegel	576
Hooft-Cats-Vondel	577
Danish Poetry	577
English Poets numerous in this age	577
Phineas Fletcher	577
Giles Fletcher	578
Philosophical Poetry	578
Lord Brooke	578
Denham’s Cooper’s Hill	579
Poets called Metaphysical	579
Donne	580
Crashaw	580
Cowley	580
Johnson’s Character of him	580
Narrative Poets—Daniel	580
Drayton’s Polyolbion	581
Browne’s Britannia’s Pastorals	581
Sir John Beaumont	582
Davenant’s Gondibert	582
Sonnets of Shakspeare	582
The person whom they address	583
Sonnets of Drummond and others	584
Carew	584
Ben Jonson	585
Wither	585
Habington	585
Earl of Pembroke	585
Suckling	586
Lovelace	586
Herrick	586
Milton	586
His Comus	586
Lycidas	587
Allegro and Penseroso	587
Ode on the Nativity	588
His Sonnets	588
Anonymous Poetry	588
Latin Poets of France	588
In Germany and Italy	588
In Holland—Heinsius	589
Casimir Sarbievius	589
Barlæus	589
Balde—Greek Poems of Heinsius	590
Latin Poets of Scotland—Jonston’s Psalms	590
Owen’s Epigrams	590
Alabaster’s Roxana	590
May’s Supplement to Lucan	590
Milton’s Latin Poems	591
CHAPTER XXIII.
HISTORY OF DRAMATIC LITERATURE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Decline of the Italian Theatre	591
Filli de Sciro	592
Translations of Spanish Dramas	592
Extemporaneous Comedy	593
Spanish Stage	593
Calderon—Number of his Pieces	593
His Comedies	593
La Vida es Sueno	594
A Secreto agravio secreta vengança	595
Style of Calderon	595
His Merits sometimes overrated	596
Plays of Hardy	596
The Cid	597
Style of Corneille	598
Les Horaces	598
Cimia	598
Polyeucte	599
Rodogune	599
Pompey	599
Heraclius	599
Nicomède	600
Faults and Beauties of Corneille	600
Le Menteur	600
Other French Tragedies	600
Wenceslas of Rotron	600
Popularity of the Stage under Elizabeth	601
Number of Theatres	601
Encouraged by James	601
General Taste for the Stage	601
Theatres closed by the Parliament	602
Shakspeare’s Twelfth Night	602
Merry Wives of Windsor	603
Measure for Measure	604
Lear	604
Timon of Athens	604
Pericles	605
His Roman Tragedies—Julius Cæsar	606
Antony and Cleopatra	606
Coriolanus	606
His Retirement and Death	607
Greatness of his Genius	607
His Judgment	607
His Obscurity	608
His Popularity	608
Critics on Shakspeare	609
Ben Jonson	609
The Alchemist	609
Volpone, or The Fox	610
The Silent Woman	610
Sad Shepherd	611
Beaumont and Fletcher	611
Corrupt State of their Text	611
The Maid’s Tragedy	611
Philaster	612
King and no King	613
The Elder Brother	613
The Spanish Curate	613
The Custom of the Country	613
The Loyal Subject	613
Beggar’s Bush	613
The Scornful Lady	614
Valentinian	614
The Two Noble Kinsmen	615
The Faithful Shepherdess	615
Rule a Wife, and have a Wife	616
Some other Plays	616
Origin of Fletcher’s Plays	616
Defects of their plots	616
Their Sentiments and Style Dramatic	617
Their Characters	617
Their Tragedies	617
Inferior to their Comedies	618
Their Female Characters	618
Massinger—Nature of his Dramas	619
His Delineations of Character	619
His Subjects	619
Beauty of His Style	620
Inferiority of his Comic Powers	620
Some of his Tragedies particularized	620
And of his other Plays	620
Ford	621
Shirley	621
Heywood	622
Webster	622
His Duchess of Malfy	622
Vittoria Corombona	622
CHAPTER XXIV.
HISTORY OF POLITE LITERATURE IN PROSE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Decline of Taste in Italy	623
Style of Galileo	624
Bentivoglio	624
Boccalini’s News from Parnassus	624
His Pietra del Paragone	625
Terrante Pallavicino	625
Dictionary Delia Crusca	625
Grammatical Works—Buonmattei—Bartoli	626
Tassoni’s Remarks on Petrarch	626
Galileo’s Remarks on Tasso	626
Sforza Pallavicino	626
And other Critical Writers	626
Prolusiones of Strada	627
Spanish Prose—Gracian	627
French Prose—Du Vair	627
Balzac	628
Character of his Writings	628
His Letters	628
Voiture—Hotel Rambouillet	629
Establishment of French Academy	630
Its objects and Constitution	630
It publishes a Critique on the Cid	631
Vaugelas’s Remarks on the French Language	631
La Mothe le Vayer	632
Legal Speeches of Patru	632
And of Le Maistre	632
Improvement in English Style	633
Earl of Essex	633
Knolles’s History of the Turks	634
Raleigh’s History of the World	635
Daniel’s History of England	635
Bacon	635
Milton	636
Clarendon	636
The Icon Basilice	636
Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy	637
Earle’s Characters	637
Overbury’s Characters	637
Jonson’s Discoveries	637
Publication of Don Quixote	638
Its Reputation	638
New Views of its Design	638
Probably erroneous	638
Difference between the two Parts	639
Excellence of this Romance	639
Minor Novels of Cervantes	639
Other Novels—Spanish	639
And Italian	639
French Romances—Astrée	639
Heroic Romances—Gomberville	640
Calprenède	640
Scuderi	641
Argenis of Barclay	641
His Euphormis	643
Campanella’s City of the Sun	643
Few Books of Fiction in England	643
Mundus Alter et Idem of Hall	644
Godwin’s Journey to the Moon	644
Howell’s Dodona’s Grove	644
Adventures of Baron de Fænesle	644
CHAPTER XXV.
HISTORY OF MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
State of Science in 16th Century	645
Tediousness of Calculations	645
Napier’s Invention of Logarithms	645
Their Nature	645
Property of Numbers discovered by Stifelius	645
Extended to Magnitudes	646
By Napier	646
Tables of Napier and Briggs	646
Kepler’s New Geometry	647
Its Difference from the Ancient	647
Adopted by Galileo	648
Extended by Cavalieri	648
Applied to the Ratios of Solids	648
Problem of the Cycloid	648
Progress of Algebra	649
Briggs—Girard	649
Harriott	649
Descartes	650
His Application of Algebra to Curves	650
Suspected Plagiarism from Harriot	650
Fermat	651
Algebraic Geometry not successful at first	652
Astronomy—Kepler	652
Conjectures as to Comets	652
Galileo’s Discovery of Jupiter’s Satellites	653
Other Discoveries by him	653
Spots of the Sun discovered	653
Copernican System held by Galileo	654
His Dialogues, and Persecution	654
Descartes alarmed by this	655
Progress of Copernican System	655
Descartes denies General Gravitation	655
Cartesian Theory of the World	655
Transits of Mercury and Venus	656
Laws of Mechanics	656
Statics of Galileo	657
His Dynamics	657
Mechanics of Descartes	658
Law of Motion laid down by Descartes	658
Also those of Compound Forces	659
Other Discoveries in Mechanics	659
In Hydrostatics and Pneumatics	659
Optics—Discoveries of Kepler	660
Invention of the Telescope	660
Of the Microscope	660
Antonio de Dominis	660
Dioptrics of Descartes—Law of Refraction	661
Disputed by Fermat	661
Curves of Descartes	661
Theory of the Rainbow	661
CHAPTER XXVI.
HISTORY OF SOME OTHER PROVINCES OF LITERATURE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Aldrovandus	662
Clusius	662
Rio and Marcgraf	662
Jonston	662
Fabricius on the Language of Brutes	663
Botany—Columna	664
John and Gaspar Bauhin	664
Parkinson	664
Valves of the Veins discovered	665
Theory of the Blood’s Circulation	665
Sometimes ascribed to Servetus	665
To Columbus	666
And to Cæsalpin	666
Generally unknown before Harvey	667
His Discovery	667
Unjustly doubted to be Original	667
Harvey’s Treatise on Generation	668
Lacteals discovered by Asellius	668
Optical Discoveries of Scheiner	669
Medicine—Van Helmont	669
Diffusion of Hebrew	669
Language not studied in the best method	669
The Buxtorfs	670
Vowel Points rejected by Cappel	670
Hebrew Scholars	671
Chaldee and Syriac	671
Arabic	671
Erpenius	671
Golius	671
Other Eastern Languages	672
Purchas’s Pilgrim	672
Olearius and Pietro della Valle	672
Lexicon of Ferrari	672
Maps of Blaew	672
Davila and Bentivoglio	673
Mendoza’s Wars of Granada	673
Mezeray	673
English Historians	673
English Histories	673
Universities	673
Bodleian Library founded	674
Casaubon’s Account of Oxford	674
Catalogue of Bodleian Library	674
Continental Libraries	675
Italian Academies	675
The Lincei	675
Prejudice for Antiquity diminished	676
Browne’s Vulgar Errors	677
Life and Character of Peiresc	677
CHAPTER XXVII.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
James Frederic Gronovius	678
James Gronovius	679
Grævius	679
Isaac Vossius	679
Decline of German Learning	679
Spanheim	679
Jesuit Colleges in France	679
Port-Royal Writers—Lancelot	679
Latin Writers—Perizonius	680
Delphin Editions	680
Le Fevre and the Daciers	680
Henry Valois—Complaints of Decay of Learning	680
English Learning—Duport	681
Greek not much studied	681
Gataker’s Cinnus and Antoninus	681
Stanley’s Æschylus	682
Other English Philologers	682
Bentley	682
His Epistle to Mill	682
Dissertation on Phalaris	682
Disadvantages of Scholars in that Age	683
Thesauri of Grævius and of Gronovius	683
Fabretti	684
Numismatics, Spanheim—Vaillant	684
Chronology—Usher	684
Pezron	685
Marsham	685
CHAPTER XXVIII.
HISTORY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Decline of Papal Influence	685
Dispute of Louis XIV. with Innocent XI.	686
Four Articles of 1682	686
Dupin on the ancient Discipline	686
Dupin’s Ecclesiastical Library	687
Fleury’s Ecclesiastical History	687
His Dissertations	687
Protestant Controversy in France	688
Bossuet’s Exposition of Catholic Faith	688
His Conference with Claude	688
Correspondence with Molanus and Leibnitz	689
His Variations of Protestant Churches	690
Anglican Writings against Popery	690
Taylor’s Dissuasive	690
Barrow—Stillingfleet	690
Jansenius	691
Condemnation of his Augustinus in France	691
And at Rome	691
The Jansenists take a Distinction	692
And are Persecuted	692
Progress of Arminianism	692
Courcelles	693
Limborch	693
Le Clerc	693
Sancroft’s Fur Prædestinatus	693
Arminianism in England	694
Bull’s Harmonia Apostolica	694
Hammond—Locke—Wilkins	694
Socinians in England	695
Bull’s Defensio Fidei Nicenæ	695
Not Satisfactory to all	695
Mystics	696
Fenelon	696
Change in the Character of Theological Literature	696
Freedom of many Writings	696
Thoughts of Pascal	697
Vindications of Christianity	699
Progress of Tolerant Principles	700
Bayle’s Philosophical Commentary	700
Locke’s Letter on Toleration	700
French Sermons	701
Bourdaloue	701
Compared with Bossuet	702
Funeral Discourses of Bossuet	702
Fléchier	703
English Sermons—Barrow	703
South	704
Tillotson	704
Expository Theology	704
Pearson on the Creed	704
Simon’s Critical Histories	705
CHAPTER XXIX.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Aristotelian Metaphysics	705
Their Decline. Thomas White	706
Logic	706
Stanley’s History of Philosophy	707
Gale’s Court of Gentiles	707
Cudworth’s Intellectual System	707
Its object	708
Sketch of it	708
His plastic nature	708
His account of old Philosophy	708
His Arguments against Atheism	709
More	709
Gassendi	710
His Logic	710
His Theory of Ideas	710
And of the Nature of the Soul	710
Distinguishes Ideas of Reflection	711
Also Intellect from Imagination	711
His Philosophy misunderstood by Stewart	712
Bernier’s Epitome of Gassendi	713
Process of Cartesian Philosophy	713
La Forge—Regis	714
Huet’s Censure of Cartesianism	715
Port-Royal Logic	716
Malebranche	717
His Style	717
Sketch of his Theory	717
Character of Malebranche	724
Compared with Pascal	724
Arnauld on True and False ideas	725
Norris	725
Pascal	725
Spinosa’s Ethics	726
Its general Originality	726
View of his Metaphysical Theory	727
Spinosa’s Theory of action and Passion	731
Character of Spinosism	732
Glanvil’s Scepsis Scientifica	733
His Plus Ultra	734
Dalgarno	735
Wilkins	736
Locke on Human Understanding	736
Its merits	736
Its Defects	737
Origin of Ideas according to Locke	737
Vague Use of the Word Idea	738
An Error as to Geometrical Figure	739
His Notions as to the Soul	740
And its Immateriality	740
His Love of Truth and Originality	741
Defended in two cases	742
His View of Lunatic Ideas	742
General Praise	743
Locke’s Conduct of Understanding	743
CHAPTER XXX.
HISTORY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND OF JURISPRUDENCE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Casuistry of the Jesuits	744
Pascal’s Provincial Letters	744
Their Truth questioned by some	744
Taylor’s Ductor Dubitantium	745
Its Character and Defects	745
Cudworth’s immutable Morality	745
Nicole—La Placette	746
Other Writers	746
Moral System of Spinosa	746
Cumberland’s De Legibus Naturæ	747
Analysis of Prolegomena	748
His Theory expanded afterwards	749
Remarks on Cumberland’s Theory	752
Puffendorf’s Law of Nature and Nations	753
Analysis of this Work	754
Puffendorf and Paley compared	757
Rochefoucault	757
La Bruyère	758
Education—Milton’s Tractrate	758
Locke on Education—Its merits	759
And Defects	759
Fenelon on Female Education	761
Puffendorf’s Theory of Politics	762
Politics of Spinosa	764
His Theory of a Monarchy	766
Amelot de la Houssaye	766
Harrington’s Oceana	766
Patriarcha of Filmer	767
Sydney’s Discourses on Government	767
Locke on Government	768
Observations on this Treatise	771
Avis auz Refugiéz, perhaps by Bayle	772
Political Economist’s	772
Mun on Foreign Trade	773
Child on Trade	773
Locke on the Coin	773
Statistical Tracts	774
Works of Leibnitz on Roman Law	775
Civil Jurists—Godefroy—Domat	775
Noodt of Usury	776
Law of Nations—Puffendorf	776
CHAPTER XXXI.
HISTORY OF POETRY FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Improved Tone of Italian Poetry	776
Filicaja	777
Guidi	777
Menzini	778
Salvator Rosa—Redi	778
Other Poets	778
Christina’s Patronage of Letters	778
Society of Arcadians	778
La Fontaine	779
Character of his Fables	779
Boileau: His Epistles	780
His Art of Poetry	780
Comparison with Horace	780
The Lutrin	780
General Character of his Poetry	780
Lyric Poetry lighter than before	781
Benserade	781
Chaulieu	781
Pastoral Poetry	781
Segrais	781
Deshouliéres	781
Fontenelle	782
Bad Epic Poems	782
German Poetry	782
Waller	782
Butler’s Hudibras	783
Paradise Lost—Choice of Subject	783
Open to some Difficulties	783
Its Arrangement	783
Characters of Adam and Eve	784
He owes less to Homer than the Tragedians	784
Compared with Dante	784
Elevation of his Style	785
His Blindness	786
His Passion for Music	786
Faults in Paradise Lost	786
Its Progress to Fame	786
Paradise Regained	787
Samson Agonistes	787
Dryden—His earlier Poems	787
Absalom and Achitophel	788
Mac Flecknoe	788
The Hind and Panther	789
Its Singular Fable	789
Its Reasoning	789
The Fables	789
His Odes—Alexander’s Feast	790
His Translation of Virgil	790
Decline of Poetry from the Restoration	790
Some Minor Poets enumerated	790
Latin Poets of Italy	791
Ceva	791
Sergardi	791
Of France—Quillet	791
Menage	792
Rapin on Gardens	792
Santeul	793
Latin Poetry in England	793
CHAPTER XXXII.
HISTORY OF DRAMATIC LITERATURE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Italian and Spanish Drama	793
Racine’s first Tragedies	793
Andromaque	794
Britannicus	795
Berenice	795
Bajazet	795
Mithridate	796
Iphigénie	796
Phèdre	797
Esther	797
Athalie	797
Racine’s Female Characters	798
Racine compared with Corneille	798
Beauty of his Style	798
Thomas Corneille—His Ariane	799
Manlius of La Fosse	799
Molière	799
L’Avare	799
L’Ecole des Femmes	800
Le Misanthrope	800
Les Femmes Savantes	801
Tartuffe	801
Bourgeois Gentilhomme—George Dandin	801
Character of Molière	802
Les Plaideurs of Racine	802
Regnard—Le Joueur	802
His Other Plays	803
Quinault—Boursault	803
Dancourt	803
Brueys	804
Operas of Quinault	804
Revival of the English Theatre	804
Change of Public Taste	804
Its Causes	805
Heroic Tragedies of Dryden	805
His later Tragedies	805
Don Sebastian	806
Spanish Friar	806
Otway	806
Southern	807
Lee	807
Congreve	807
Comedies of Charles II.’s Reign	807
Wycherley	808
Improvement after the Revolution	808
Congreve	808
Love for Love	808
His other Comedies	808
Farquhar—Vanbrugh	809
CHAPTER XXXIII.
HISTORY OF POLITE LITERATURE IN PROSE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Low State of Literature in Italy	809
Crescimbeni	810
Age of Louis XIV. in France	810
Fontenelle—his Character	810
His Dialogues of the Dead	811
Those of Fenelon	811
Fontenelle’s Plurality of Worlds	811
His History of Oracles	811
St. Evremond	812
Madame de Sevigné	812
The French Academy	812
French Grammars	813
Bouhour’s Entretiens d’Ariste et d’Eugène	813
Attacked by Barbier d’Ancour	814
La Manière de Bien Penser	815
Rapin’s Reflections on Eloquence and Poetry	815
His Parallel’s of Great Men	815
Bossu on Epic Poetry	816
Fontenelle’s Critical Writings	816
Preference of French Language to Latin	816
General Superiority of Ancients disputed	816
Charles Perrault	816
Fontenelle	817
Boileau’s Defence of Antiquity	817
First Reviews—Journal des Sçavans	817
Reviews Established by Bayle	818
Reviews Established by Le Clerc	818
Leipsic Acts	819
Bayle’s Thoughts on the Comet	819
His Dictionary	819
Baillet—Morhof	820
The Ana	820
English Style in this Period	820
Hobbes	821
Cowley	821
Evelyn	821
Dryden	821
His Essay on Dramatic Poesy	822
Improvements in his Style	823
His Critical Character	823
Rymer on Tragedy	823
Sir William Temple’s Essays	824
Style of Locke	824
Sir George Mackenzie’s Essays	824
Andrew Fletcher	824
Walton’s Complete Angler	824
Wilkins’ New World	824
Antiquity defended by Temple	825
Wotton’s Reflection’s	825
Quevedo’s Visions	825
French Heroic Romances	826
Novels of Madame La Fayette	826
Scarron’s Roman Comique	826
Cyrano de Bergerac	827
Segrais	827
Perrault	827
Hamilton	827
Télémaque of Fenelon	827
Deficiency of English Romances	828
Pilgrim’s Progress	828
Turkish Spy	829
Chiefly of English Origin	830
Swift’s Tale of a Tub	831
CHAPTER XXXIV.
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL AND OTHER LITERATURE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Reasons for omitting Mathematics	831
Academy del Cimento	831
Royal Society	832
Academy of Sciences at Paris	832
State of Chemistry	832
Becker	833
Boyle	833
His Metaphysical Works	833
Extract from one of them	833
His Merits in Physics and Chemistry	834
General Character of Boyle	834
Of Hooke and Others	834
Lemery	835
Slow Progress of Zoology	835
Before Ray	835
His Synopsis of Quadrupeds	835
Merits of this Work	835
Redi	836
Swammerdam	836
Lister	836
Comparative Anatomy	836
Botany	837
Jungius	837
Morison	837
Ray	837
Rivinus	838
Tournefort	838
Vegetable Physiology	839
Grew	839
His Anatomy of Plants	840
He discovers the Sexual System	840
Camerarius confirms this	840
Predecessors of Grew	840
Malpighi	840
Early Notions of Geology	840
Burnet’s Theory of Earth	840
Other Geologists	841
Protogæa of Leibnitz	841
Circulation of Blood Established	842
Willis—Vieussens	842
Malpighi	842
Other Anatomists	842
Medical Theories	843
Polyglott of Walton	843
Hottinger	844
Spencer	844
Bochart	844
Pococke	844
D’Herbelot	844
Hyde	844
Maps of the Sansons	844
De Lisle’s Map of the World	845
Voyages and Travels	845
Historians	845
De Solis	845
Memoirs of De Retz	845
Bossuet on Universal History	846
English Historical Works	846
Burnet	846
General Character of 17th Century	846
Conclusion	847