Carving may be roughly divided into the following groups: (1) high relief carving similar to heads, human figures, and capitals; (2) low relief carving in which the planes have been flattened to a comparatively short distance above the original block of wood, such as panels, which are good examples of this group; (3) pierced carving where the background has been entirely cut away in places, such as screens, which illustrate this type; (4) incised carving in which the design has been depressed below the surface of the wood. Geometric chip carving is a representative type of this group. There are possible variations and combinations of these groups.
Rule 6j. Carved surface enrichment should have the appearance of belonging to the parent mass.
Plate 33
The central governing thought in all carved designs is to show an interesting proportion of light and shade coupled with a unity between the raised portion of the design and the background. If the carving has a glued on appearance it becomes mechanical and resembles a stamped or machine-produced ornament.
A typical carved enrichment is carried through four steps: (1) the design is transferred to the wood surface by means of carbon paper; (2) the design is "set in" or separated from the ground by means of a grooved chisel; (3) the wood is cut away from the back of the design by a process of grounding; (4) the leaves and flowers or other elements of the design are modeled. The designer should keep these processes in mind when developing his design.
It is now essential to find the extent of the vocabulary possible for the designer of surface enrichment. He has three large sources of information: first, geometric forms and abstract spots; second, natural organic objects such as flowers, leaves, animals, etc.; third, artificial objects, pots, jars, ink bottles, and other similar objects.
He may assemble or group these objects or elements for future designs into four typical systems: first, bands or borders; second, panels; third, free ornament; and fourth, the diaper or all-over patterns.
Rule 6d. Bands and borders should have a consistent lateral, that is, onward movement.
Rule 6e. Bands and borders should never have a prominent contrary motion, opposed to the main forward movement.
Bands are particularly suitable for inlaying. They are composed of straight lines arranged in some orderly and structurally related manner. They are used for bordering, framing, enclosing, or connecting. They give a decided onward motion which tends to increase the apparent length of the surface to which they are applied. Referring to Plate 32, Figure 192, we find three typical bands, A, B, and C. It is often the custom to limit the width of the inlayed bands to the width of the circular saw cut. To secure unity, the center band in C is wider than the outside sections.
A possible variation of motive in band designing may be secured by accenting. The single band has been broken up at D into geometric sections of pleasing length. But while this design gives variety, it also destroys the unity of a single straight line. Unity may, however, be restored by the addition of the top and bottom bands at E. This method of restoring unity is of extreme value in all border arrangements and is constantly used by the designer.
Rule 6f. All component parts of a border should move in unison with the main movement of the border.
Bands, as has just been stated, give distinctly "onward" movement. Borders are merely bands combined with other motives from the designer's vocabulary. As will be seen, bands, by their onward movement, tend to hold the other elements of the border together. Figure 193 is a border design without variety, unity, or interest. Figure 194 has added unity to a similar border by the addition of the double bands, but monotony is still present. Figure 195 suggests a method of relieving the monotony by accentuating every other repeat, thus supplying variety and creating an analogy to march-time music. Figure 196 has accentuated the monotonous border in Figure 194 by omitting every other square. This makes a simple and effective inlay pattern and suggests a large number of possible variations that could be applied to accented band motives.
Figures 197 and 198 are border motives of geometric derivation taken from the historic schools of ornament. Figure 198 illustrates the "strap ornament" of the Moorish school. The simple underlying geometric net upon which these designs are based may be found in Meyer's Handbook of Ornament.
Rule 6h. Borders intended for vertical surfaces may have a strongly upward movement in addition to the lateral movement, provided the lateral movement dominates.
In addition to the purely onward borders we now come to a variety with a distinctly upward movement as well. While this new feature adds materially to the interest of the border, it also adds to the difficulty of designing. The upward movement is often centered about an axis termed the Axis of Symmetry or Inceptive Axis, about which are grouped and balanced the different elements from the designer's vocabulary. When both sides are alike, the unit so formed is called a bilateral unit. Figure 199 shows the formation of a bilateral unit by means of grouping, accenting, and balancing straight lines over an inceptive axis. By adding bands above and below and doubling these vertical lines to gain width, we form at A and B, Figure 199, inlaid designs with an upward and onward tendency or movement.
Courtesy of Berkey and Gay
Figure 215.—Inlaid Band Border
The introduction of curved lines and natural units allows us to add more grace to these combined movements. The leading lines of a small border, designed to be seen at close range, are planned in Figure 200. The central line or inceptive axis is repeated at regular intervals and the leading or skeleton lines are balanced to the right and left of this axis. These leading lines, as can be readily seen, have an upward and onward movement. To insure continuity, a small link and the top and bottom bands have been added to complete the onward movement.
Material for straight borders may be derived from geometry, nature, or artificial forms, but for borders designed in curves, nature is generally selected as a source.
Courtesy of C.E. Partch
Figure 216a.—Work of High School Students
Figure 201 illustrates a crude and uninteresting form, unsuited to outline enrichment. Figure 202 has brought Figure 201 into some semblance of order, but as can be readily seen by the primary outline which encloses it, the widest point occurs exactly midway from top to bottom, which makes the form monotonous. This defect has been remedied in Figure 203 and an interesting and varied area appears for the first time. What Dr. Haney calls "the feebly flapping curve" of Figure 202 has been replaced by the vigorous and "snappy" curve of Figure 203, which gives what is termed a dynamic or rhythmic value in surface enrichment.
Rule 6g. Each component part of a border should be strongly dynamic and, if possible, partake of the main movements of the border.
Any form which causes the eye to move in a given direction is strongly dynamic, and is opposed to the static form which does not cause a marked eye movement. A circle is symbolic of the static form, while a triangle is dynamic. In the designer's nomenclature, the term "rhythmic" may be used synonymously with "dynamic."
Dynamic areas or forms should carry out the upward and onward movement of the leading lines. Figure 204 shows how closely dynamic areas are connected with nature's units for design motives. A slight change in the contour may transform a leaf into excellent material with which to clothe the leading lines. The curve of force, the cyma, and other curves described in previous chapters should be recognized by the designer and utilized in the contours of dynamic forms.
The leading lines of the border in Figure 200 are shown clothed or enriched in Figure 205. Vigorous dynamic spots, conventionalized from natural units, continue the upward and onward movement of the original leading lines. As will be noted, the background has been treated to allow the spots to appear in relief. Small "fussy" spots or areas have been omitted and the units, varied in size and strongly dynamic in form, balance over an inceptive axis. The small link reaches out its helping hand to complete the onward movement without loss of unity, while the bands above and below bind the design together and assist in the lateral movement. Figure 205 shows three methods of treatment: simple spots without modeling, from A to B; slight indications of modeling, from B to C; full modeling of the entire unit at C. The choice of treatment depends, of course, upon the skill of the craftsman.
Figure 206 shows a design varied from formal balance over a central axis of symmetry or an inceptive axis. It has a decided onward movement with the leaves balanced above and below the stem which is the axis. The "repeat" has been reversed at B and is more pleasing than the portion at A. The area of the background, in its relation to that used for ornamentation or "filling," cannot be predetermined with exactness. There should be no blank spaces for the eye to bridge. Some designers allow about one-third ground for two-thirds filling or enrichment. This proportion gives a full and rich effect and may be adopted in most instances as satisfactory.
When a border is used to parallel a rectangle it is customary to strengthen the border at the corners for two reasons: first, to strengthen, apparently, the structure at these points; second, to assist the eye in making the sudden turn at the corner. The corner enforcement affords momentary resting points for the eye, and adds pleasing variety to the long line of border. The strengthened point is called the point of concentration or point of force. Its presence and effect may be noted by the symbol P.C. in Figures 207, 208, 213, and 214.
Figure 213 represents the rather angular and monotonous chip carving motive. It is, however, a simple form of carved enrichment for wood construction. Figure 214 shows the more rhythmic flow of a carved and modeled enrichment. Two methods of leaf treatment are given at A and B.
Figures 215, 216, and 217 are industrial and public school examples of the forms of surface enrichment treated in this chapter.
INSTRUCTION SHEET
Plate 35 shows the necessary working drawings for wood inlay and is supplied as a typical high school problem by Mr. C.E. Partch of Des Moines, Iowa. See Figure 216c.
SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS
(a) Draw the primary rectangle, appendage, etc.
(b) Subdivide the rectangle into its horizontal and vertical subdivisions.
(c) Design very simple contour enrichment.
(d) Determine the location of zone of enrichment, and the amount and method of enriching the surface.
(e) Make several preliminary sketches to determine the best design and add the one finally selected to the structure. Correlate with contour enrichment.
(f) Add additional views, dimension, and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use.
SUGGESTED PROBLEM
Design a walnut side table 3 feet high and enrich with a double band inlay of ebony.
SUMMARY OF RULES
Rule 6a. Surfaces to be enriched must admit of enrichment.
Rule 6b. Surface enrichment must be related to the structural contours but must not obscure the actual structure.
Rule 6c. The treatment must be appropriate to the material.
Rule 6d. Bands and borders should have a consistent lateral, that is, onward movement.
Rule 6e. Bands and borders should never have a prominent contrary motion, opposed to the main forward movement.
Rule 6f. All component parts of a border should move in unison with the main movement of the border.
Rule 6g. Each component part of a border should be strongly dynamic and, if possible, partake of the main movement of the border.
Rule 6h. Borders intended for vertical surfaces may have a strongly upward movement in addition to the lateral movement, provided the lateral movement dominates.
Rule 6i. Inlayed enrichment should never form strong or glaring contrasts with the parent surface.
Rule 6j. Carved surface enrichment should have the appearance of belonging to the parent mass.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Give the reasons why surface enrichment may be used as decoration.
2. State an original example illustrating when and where to use surface enrichment.
3. Name an object from the industrial arts in which the structure has been weakened or obscured by the application of surface enrichment. Name an example of the correct use of surface enrichment and state wherein it has been correctly applied.
4. How should surface enrichment of small masses differ from that applied to larger masses; in what manner does the fiber of the wood affect the design?
5. Name three means of enriching the surface of wood. Briefly describe the processes of inlaying and carving, with the design restrictions governing each.
6. Give three sources of ornament open to the designer of surface enrichment.
7. Draw an accented triple band motive for inlay.
8. What is the inceptive axis; a bilateral unit? What are leading lines; dynamic forms; points of concentration?
9. Design an upward and onward continuous carved border for wood and base it upon a vertical inceptive axis. Treat as in A, Figure 205.
10. Illustrate the manner in which structure may be apparently strengthened by a band or border.
Chapter IX dealt with methods of developing continuous or repeating ornament (bands or borders). This leaves enclosed and free forms of surface enrichment to be considered in this chapter.
As an enclosed form, a panel may be enriched by geometric, natural, or artificial ornament. It is enclosed in a definite boundary of bands or lines and may be a square or other polygon, circle, ellipse, lunette, spandrel, lozenge, or triangle. As the decoration does not have the continuous repeating movement of the border and as it covers an enclosed area, it is necessarily treated in a different manner from either band or border. Its object is to decorate a plane surface. The enrichment may be made by means of carving, inlaying, or painting.
Free ornament means the use of motives not severely enclosed by bands or panels. Free ornament is generally applied to centers or upper portions of surfaces to relieve a monotonous area not suited to either panel or border treatment. It may have an upward or a radial movement dependent upon the character of the member to be enriched.
We then have three forms of possible surface enrichment: repeating or continuous motives, enclosed motives, and free motives. Our next point is to consider where the last two may be used appropriately in surface enrichment.
The panel of a small primary mass of wood may be enriched at any one of three places: first, at the margins; second, at the center; third, over the entire surface. The exact position is a matter to be determined by the structural design and the utilitarian requirements of the problem. For example, a bread board or taboret top would require the enrichment in the margin with the center left free. A table leg might require an enrichment in the center of the upper portion of the leg, while a square panel to be inserted in a door, Figure 233, Page 124, might require full surface treatment.
Each area of panel enrichment should have one or more accented points known as points of concentration. The design should become more prominent at these places and cause the eye to rest for a moment before passing to the next point of prominence. The accented portion of the design at these points should be so related to the structure that it apparently reinforces the structure as a whole. Corners, centers of edges, and geometric centers are salient parts of a structure; we shall therefore be likely to find our points of concentration coinciding with them. Let us then consider the first of these arrangements as applied to enclosed enrichment.
Rule 7a. Marginal panel enrichment should parallel or be related to the outlines of the primary mass and to the panel it is to enrich.
Rule 7b. Marginal points of concentration in panels should be placed (1) preferably at the corner or (2) in the center of each margin.
Rule 7c. To insure unity of design in panels, the elements composing the points of concentration and the links connecting them must be related to the panel contour and to each other.
The marginal method of enrichment may be used when it is impossible to enrich the entire surface because the center is to be used for utilitarian purposes or because it would be aesthetically unwise to enrich the entire surface. The marginal zone is adapted to enriching box tops, stands, table tops, and similar surfaces designed preferably with the thought of being seen from above. We shall call such surfaces horizontal planes.
As the design is to be limited to the margin, the panel outline is bound to parallel the contours, or outlines, of the surface to be enriched. It is well to begin the design by creating a panel parallel to the outlines of the enriched surface. Figure 218. The next step is to place the point of concentration in the marginal zone and within this figure. Common usage dictates the corners as the proper points. It may be the designer's practice to use the single or double bands, Figures 218, 219, 220, with a single accentuation at the corners. The spots composing the point of concentration must have unity with the enclosing contours and with the remainder of the enrichment. Figure 220 is, in this respect, an improvement over Figure 219. But these examples are not true enclosed panel enrichment. They are the borders of Chapter IX acting as marginal enrichment. It is not until we reach Figure 221 that the true enclosed enrichment appears, when the panel motive is clearly evident. In this figure a single incised band parallels the contours of the figure until the corner is reached. Here we find it turning, gracefully widening to give variety, and supporting the structure by its own increased strength. The single band in Figure 221 acts as a bridge, leads the eye from one point of concentration to the next similar point, forms a compact mass with the point of concentration, and parallels the enclosing contours of the enriched surface.
In Figure 222 the point of concentration is to be found in the center of each margin. This bilateral unit is clearly designed on and about the center lines of the square panel. These points of concentration take the place of previous concentrations at the corners which were based upon the square's diagonals. While accenting based upon the center lines is acceptable, this means of concentration does not seem so successfully to relate the accented part to the structural outlines as that of concentration based upon the diagonals. The latter, therefore, is recommended for beginners. The corners of Figure 222 are, however, slightly accented by means of the bridging spots x-x.
The diagonals and center lines of the surface enriched squares of Figures 221 and 222 and similar structural lines are inceptive axes, as they are center lines for new design groups. It may then be said that a strong basic axis or similar line depending upon the structure, may become the center line or inceptive axis upon which to construct a bilateral design. It is only necessary to have this inceptive axis pass through the enrichment zone of the panel. Hereafter in the drawings, inceptive axes will be designated by the abbreviation I.A. while the point of concentration will be indicated by the abbreviation P.C.
The strongest plea for the inceptive axis is the fact that it interlocks surface enrichment with the structure, insuring a degree of unity that might otherwise be unattainable.
The carved enrichment of Figure 223 fully illustrates this point. The analytical study of Figure 224 shows the diagonal used as an inceptive axis, with the leading lines grouped about it at the corner point of concentration.
Rule 8a. Free ornament for partly or fully enriched surfaces should be based and centered upon an inceptive axis of the structure.
Rule 8b. Free ornament should be related and subordinated to the structural surfaces.
Rule 8c. Points of concentration in free enrichment of vertically placed masses are usually located in and around the inceptive axis and above or below the geometric center of the design.
This method of surface enrichment is used to relieve the design of heavy members in the structure or to distribute ornament over the surface of lighter parts in a piece of furniture. An example is noted in Figure 246, Page 128, where the upper portion of the legs has center enrichment. As can be readily seen, the enrichment is generally free in character with little or no indication of enclosure. Figure 225 shows the application of free enrichment to a paneled screen or hinged door. The P.C. is in the upper portion of the door and is re-echoed in the door frames, while the ornament itself is strongly dynamic in movement with a decided upward tendency in sympathy with the proportions of the door. This motive might be developed by inlay, carving, or paint.
Figure 226 is a carved Gothic leaf, appropriately used as enrichment of heavy furniture. The unit may be raised above the surface or, even more easily, depressed or incised into the surface. The small corner spot is added with the intention of bringing the leaf into sympathetic conformity with the contours. Note how the center line of both units in Figures 225 and 226 coincides with the inceptive axis of the structure. Let it again be reiterated that this binding of the surface enrichment to the structure by means of the coincidence of the axes of symmetry and the inceptive axes causes the most positive kind of unity. No part of this form of enrichment should be carved sufficiently high to give it the appearance of being separated from the main surface.
Figures 227 and 228 are additional examples of free enrichment. Figure 228 has introduced by its monogram the individual touch of ownership so essential to the success of school designing. The monogram represents free enrichment while the border is marginal decoration with the point of concentration in the center of the top edge. Both types of enrichment are related to each other and to the structural contours.
Figure 229 is typical free pierced enrichment. The wood in the enriched portion is removed and the resulting figure supplies added lightness of construction and variety to the surface. One encounters this form of enrichment in the average school project with greater frequency than either inlaying or carving. It is with the thought of adding to the possibilities of school project decoration that the latter forms have been introduced. A word regarding the errors often encountered in pierced enrichment of the character of Figure 229 may not be amiss. Pupils, believing the square to be the last word in this form of enrichment, place the figure on the member to be enriched with little thought of its possible relation to the structural contours; the result is the un-unified design illustrated in Figure 230. To correct this, reference should be made to Rule 8b.
Rule 7d. The contours of fully enriched panels should parallel the outlines of the primary mass and repeat its proportions.
This is the richest and most elaborate form of enrichment when carried to its full perfection. It generally takes the form of a panel filled with appropriate design material. This panel may be used to enrich the plain end of a project such as a book stall and thus cover the entire surface, or it may be inserted into a large primary mass and accentuate its center as in a door, in a manner similar to Figure 233. Its use, whatever its position, leads us to the consideration of methods of designing full panels.
Rule 7e. The points of concentration for a fully enriched square panel may be in its center or in its outer margin.
In planning designs for full panels, it would be well to consider: first, square panels; second, rectangular panels; third, varied panels. The point of concentration may be kept in the corners of a square panel, as designed in Figure 231, or it may be placed in the center, as shown in Figure 232. The effects, when assembled, are indicated in Figure 233.
To secure these effects, a square panel is commonly divided into quarter sections by center lines. The diagonals of each quarter should be drawn before proceeding with the details of the design. These diagonals and center lines are the building lines or leading axes of the pattern. The leading lines and details are then grouped around these center and diagonal axes in a manner quite similar to the method used in Figures 223 and 224. These leading lines are then clothed with enrichment by applying the processes indicated in Chapter IX.
Without going into detail we may say that it is good practice: first, to draw the square panel; second, to draw the center lines and diagonals; third, to locate points of concentration; fourth, to make the leading lines move inwardly to center concentration or outwardly to corner concentration; fifth, to clothe these lines with ornament having strongly dynamic movement corresponding to the leading lines; sixth, to fill in remaining space with ornament, supporting the movement toward points of concentration, even though slight and minor contrasts of direction are added to give variety. When the entire design is completed one should ask the following questions: Does the design have unity? Does it seem too thin and spindling? And most of all, do the points of concentration and shape of the panel fit the structural outlines and proportions? We cannot fit a square peg into a round hole; neither can we fit a square panel into a circular or rectangular mass without considerable change to the panel.
Figures 234 and 235 have been drawn with the idea of suggesting a simple and modified form of panel enrichment which may be readily handled by the beginner. The tree as a decorative symbol is appropriate to wood, and its adaption to a square panel is drawn at Figure 235.
While a rectangular panel may be divided into sections by a number of different methods, it is well for the beginner in design to treat it as a vertical mass, designed to enrich a vertical surface. This vertical panel may then be divided into halves by the axis of symmetry, which should coincide with an inceptive axis, but it is not essential to balance the enrichment exactly in each half. Small deviations from exact symmetry sometimes give added variety to the design. Figure 235.
Rule 7f. The points of concentration for a fully enriched vertical panel should be in the upper portion of the panel.
The point of concentration in vertical panels should be in the upper portion, and all parts of the design, both leading lines and clothing, should have a strong upward tendency. Figure 236 is a vertical panel from historic ornament. The heavier parts have been designed at the bottom for stability and the lighter and more intricate members have been placed at the top.
Rule 7g. The fully enriched panel and its contents should be designed in unified relation to the structural outlines, with the center line of the panel coinciding with the inceptive axis of the structure.
To see how to apply rectangular panels to wood surfaces, let us look at Figure 240. This is a simple design with an incised background and might be used for enriching a narrow paneled door, newel post, or frame. The large areas are at the bottom; the point of concentration is at the top, and the entire design balances over the inceptive axis. The point of concentration consists of the geometrically treated small flower form, with its original lines modified to simplify the carving processes. The stem coincides with the inceptive axis, while narrow and sympathetically related minor panels fill in the background and keep the design from appearing weak and thin.
Figure 237 is an accurate rendering of the flower form and is the data or record of facts for Figure 240. Figure 238 introduces the method of plotting the areas from these facts. Variety of form and area is, at this stage, desirable. Figure 239 has assembled these areas into orderly balance over the axis of symmetry. Figure 240 has again slightly modified them to apply to the vertical panel in wood.