The panels under consideration up to this time have been designed to harmonize with square and rectangular contours. The panel may, however, become a most flexible and sympathetic element, changing its form to suit the ever-changing contours. But though change of shape affects the contents of the panel to a certain extent the points of concentration and the inceptive axes still act as our guide. Objects are arranged formally on each side of the inceptive axes and the space filling is approximately the same as in former examples.
The still life sketches of the art class may be conventionalized into appropriate motives for utilitarian objects as shown in Figure 241. This use of still life suggests a most desirable correlation and a welcome one to many drawing teachers. Three points should be kept in mind: first, adaptability of the object, its decorative possibilities, and appropriateness to service; second, adjustment of the panel to contours; third, adjustment of the object to the wood panel.
Some portion of the object should be designed to parallel the panel. Small additional spots may assist in promoting harmony between the object and the panel boundary. These three considerations are essentially necessary factors in the design of enclosed enrichment. Figures 242 and 243 are other adaptations of panel design to varied contours.
In the foregoing examples the designs are more or less rigidly balanced over the inceptive axis or axis of symmetry. Imaginary axis it is, but, acting with the panel, it nevertheless arbitrarily limits the position of all parts within the panel. By removing this semblance of formal balance, we approach what is termed free balance. In this we find that the designer attempts to balance objects informally over the geometric center of the panel or combined panels. As the arrow points in Figure 244 indicate, the problem is to balance the trees in an informal and irregular manner, avoiding "picket fence" regularity. In all of this freedom there is a sense of order, since a mass of trees on one side of the geometric center is balanced by a similar mass on the other side. Indeed, in Figure 244 this may be carried even to the point of duplicating in reverse order the outside panels of the Triptych.
Plate 40
Figure 245 again reverts to artificial motives, illustrated in free balance. The jet of steam is the unifying factor which brings the cup into harmony with the enclosing space. Figure 246 shows illustrations of free balance and border enrichment from the industrial market.
INSTRUCTION SHEET
Plate 40 indicates the necessary design steps for a panel surface enrichment correlating with still life drawing. Note the connection between the ink bottle, pen, and book as used to decorate a book stall.
SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS
For Square Panel Surface Enrichment
(a) Draw the primary rectangle of the principal surface, appendages, etc.
(b) Subdivide into major vertical and horizontal divisions.
(c) Design simple contour enrichment. Determine location of zone of enrichment (the panel), the amount and method of enriching the surface.
(d) Draw outline of the panel which should be sympathetically related to the contours.
(e) Draw diameters, diagonals, or center lines of the panel. Regard these as possible inceptive axes.
(f) Locate points of concentration on either diameters, diagonals, or center lines.
(g) Draw leading lines in sympathy with the contours of the panel, the inceptive axis, and the point of concentration.
(h) Clothe the leading lines with enrichment that shall be appropriate to the structure, the material, and the intended service. Note the result. Is the panel agreeably filled without appearing overcrowded or meager? Several preliminary sketches should be made.
(i) Add additional views, dimension, and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use.
SUGGESTED PROBLEM
Design a glove box and enrich the cover with a simple carved panel with marginal panel enrichment.
SUMMARY OF RULES
Enclosed Surface Enrichment for Partly Enriched Panels
Rule 7a. Marginal panel enrichment should parallel or be related to the outlines of the primary mass, and to the panel it is to enrich.
Rule 7b. Marginal points of concentration in panels should be placed (1) preferably at the corners or (2) in the center of each margin.
Rule 7c. To insure unity of design in panels, the elements composing the points of concentration and the links connecting them must be related to the panel contour and to each other.
Enclosed Surface Enrichment for Fully Enriched Panels
Rule 7d. The contours of fully enriched panels should parallel the outlines of the primary mass and repeat its proportions.
Rule 7e. The points of concentration for a fully enriched square panel may be in its center or in its outer margin.
Rule 7f. The points of concentration for a fully enriched vertical panel should be in the upper portion of the panel.
Rule 7g. The fully enriched panel and its contents should be designed in unified relation to the structural outlines, with the center line of the panel coinciding with the inceptive axis of the structure.
Free Surface Enrichment
Rule 8a. Free ornament for partly or fully enriched surfaces should be based and centered upon an inceptive axis of the structure.
Rule 8b. Free ornament should be related and subordinated to the structural surfaces.
Rule 8c. Points of concentration in free enrichment of vertically placed masses are usually located in and around the inceptive axis and above or below the geometric center of the design.
Postulate: Surface enrichment should be inseparably linked to the surface and to the outlines or contours.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is a panel?
2. State three sections or areas at which a panel may be enriched. Give reasons for selecting a given area.
3. Explain relation of point of concentration to each section.
4. In marginal enrichment, is it preferable to locate the point of concentration in the center or corner of the margin? Why?
5. What is the value of an inceptive axis with relation to the unity of a design? What is its relation to the structure?
6. Give the characteristics and use of free enrichment.
7. State the use of full panel enrichment.
8. Where may the point of concentration be located in full square panel enrichment?
9. Name six steps essential to the designing of a square panel.
10. For what specific purpose is a vertical rectangular panel adapted?
11. Where should the point of concentration be located in a vertical rectangular panel?
12. Draw a flower form and adapt it to a carved enrichment in wood.
13. To what uses are panels of varied shapes adapted?
14. How may artificial objects be adapted to surface enrichment?
15. Explain the term "free balance."
This article is, in part, a brief summary and review of Rules 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b, 3c (vertical and horizontal major divisions) with application to minor subdivisions. By minor spacings or subdivisions in wood work we refer to the areas occupied by drawers, doors, shelves, and other small parts subordinated in size to the large or major divisions such as large front or side panels, etc. These smaller or minor subdivisions in wood work are bounded by runners, rails, guides, and stiles depending upon the form of construction and character of the minor subdivision. Major divisions are often bounded by legs, table tops, and principal rails.
It is an interesting and useful fact that rules governing major divisions generally apply equally well to minor ones. There are a few exceptions and additions to be noted in their appropriate places.
When minor subdivisions are well planned they supply one of the most interesting forms of surface enrichment or treatment, for if we consider paneling an appropriate form of decoration, we are equally privileged to feel that each small drawer or door adds its quota of interest to the sum total of the entire mass. We are equally justified in accenting these drawers or doors with panel decoration or other forms of surface enrichment provided that harmony is maintained.
These minor subdivisions, properly enriched, may become equalizers, or elements which adjust the design to the character of the surroundings destined to receive the project of which they are a part.
With reference to the illustrations, Figure 247, Plate 41, shows a simple minor panel treatment falling under Rule 3a. Single or preferably double band inlay might have been suitably substituted for the sunken panels. As many craftsmen are not properly equipped to produce inlays, it is practicable to use stock inlays, thus simplifying the process.
In a three-part design it is the designer's desire to gain the effect of lightness and height by the use of Rule 3b. As a simple treatment of a three-part design, Figure 248 needs little comment. Figures 249 and 250 are examples of dividing, by means of minor divisions, the outer sections of a three-part design.
The small drawers in the right and left sections of Figure 250 might have been improved in proportion by again applying Rule 2a to their design, thereby varying the measure of their heights. The enclosed panel enrichment affords pleasing variety to the otherwise unvaried front panels. Rule 7g.
Figures 251 and 252 show unbroken drawer runners continuing through all three vertical sections, thus definitely binding these sections together. It is seen that this device is conducive to unity, whenever two or three vertical divisions have been used.
Figure 252 is a repetition of Figure 251, but shows the echo or continuation of the three divisions of the primary mass into the appendage. The use of the single or double band enrichment still further binds the minor subdivisions of the primary mass into ideal unity with the appendage.
Rule 2c. A primary mass may be divided into three or more smaller horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger mass or masses at the bottom and by sequentially reducing the height measure of each mass toward the smaller division or divisions to be located at the top of the mass.
Rule 2c. Let us now imagine the center section of a three-part design to be removed and extended upward. Its transformation by this process into a cabinet or chiffonier similar to Figure 253, Plate 42, introduces the new principle of sequential progression. Instead of adhering to the limitation of Rules 2a and 2b, this arrangement shows that the horizontal divisions may be gradually decreased in height from the bottom toward the top of the primary mass. By this rhythmic decrease in the measure of the height, the eye is led through an orderly gradation through lesser areas to the top, thus giving a pleasing sensation of lightness and variety to the structure. By this method, also, the large areas are retained at the bottom to give stability and solidity to the structure. A quick test of these conditions may be made by reversing Figure 254, thus producing a more decidedly pleasing effect.
This orderly gradation or sequence of heights need not be carried out with absolute mathematical precision such as 7-6-5-4-3-2-1. Arrangements similar to the following progression make for equally pleasing and more varied effect: 9¼-8-6¾-6-5-4¾. Many designers repeat similar heights for two neighboring horizontal spaces as, 6-5-5-4¾, but the upward gradation should be apparent. Figure 255, an Austrian motive, shows a strongly marked sequence with the top division broken by Rule 3b. It is better practice to keep such attempts confined to the bottom or top members of the sequence or loss of unity may be the final result.
By applying this principle to the center section of a three-part design, we now have illustrated in Figure 256 the new sequence in its application, and Figures 257 and 258 are variations of the same idea.
We now come to the transitional type of design where three vertical sections begin to lose their dominance as major divisions, but still retain their places in the design as minor sections. Replacing these in prominence is the horizontal major section or division. The first immediate result of this change as shown in Plate 43 is to produce a more compact surface with a greater impression of length because of the presence of strongly accented horizontal lines which are always associated with horizontal divisions. This transitional style with its minor but dominant horizontal divisions would harmonize with the long horizontal lines of a room or similar lines in the furniture. The full expression of this style or type will be readily seen by comparing Plates 43 and Figures 251 and 252, Plate 41. Several styles of period furniture have been introduced in Plate 43 to prove the universality of these principles of space divisions.
Figures 259, 260, and 262, Plate 43, are divided by three minor vertical sections cut by two minor horizontal divisions with the dominance in the lower section. Rule 2a. The arrangement of the small central drawers could have been more varied by the application of the principle of sequential progression. Figures 261 and 263 show similar vertical spacings with a difference in the arrangements of the horizontal divisions. In these figures the dominance has been placed in the upper section of the primary mass by the division created by the runner above the lower drawer. It is likewise seen that Figure 263 needs a top appendage to bind the top into closer unity with minor spacings.
In carrying the transitional type to which we have referred in the previous paragraphs from the vertical space influence toward the horizontal, we are gradually approaching three minor horizontal divisions, still maintaining three minor vertical divisions in a modified and less prominent form. Figure 264 is an approach toward three horizontal divisions. As only one clear-cut horizontal space division is visible, this figure is not a pure example. The upper horizontal space division is broken up into a three-part design by the drawer guides. It is not until we reach Figure 266 that three horizontal divisions are clearly evident.
The horizontal minor divisions in furniture are generally drawer runners and the vertical minor divisions are often drawer guides. The horizontal divisions may be arranged in either one of two ways: first, by the application of Rule 2b; or second, by applying Rule 2c, the rule of sequential progression. Figures 266, 267, and 268, Plate 44, are representative of the former while Figures 269 and 270 are typical of the latter. The result in either case is a compactly designed and solid mass of simple structural lines. On some occasions we find the three-part rule used for minor divisions within the horizontal sections, while again the two-part rule is used. The method depends upon the desired use and appearance. In either case the long areas and large masses are to be retained as far as possible near the bottom of each primary mass, as this custom tends to give a sense of solidity to the design.
Figure 271 is a rare reversion to more than three vertical divisions. In this case, Rule 3c has been observed and we find all of the panels are of equal size. Variety has been secured by means of the horizontal spacings.
This form of design is inherent in the Japanese system. It consists in the planning and balancing of unequal areas over a geometric center. It is not subject to definite rules as is the more formal balancing. The reader is referred to Mr. Arthur Dow's excellent book on Composition for further discussion of the subject. Figure 272, Plate 45, is an example of partly formal and partly free balance and its method of treatment.
Figures 273 and 274 are pierced designs, thoroughly related to the structure and in no way weakening it. Figure 273 is representative of a type which, if carried to extremes, will cause the structure to become too weak for service; it is, therefore, necessary to guard and restrict this form of enrichment. The carving of Figure 275, combined with the contour enrichment, forms a pleasing variation to this common type of furniture design.
Small minor details in furniture construction should be designed with as much care as the larger major or minor parts. The larger areas or spaces in small details similar to stationery shelves and pigeon holes must harmonize in proportion with the space in which they are placed and of which they are a part.
The three-part or three-vertical division system, Rule 3b, is generally used to design the small details in furniture as may be seen in Figures 276, 277, 278, and 279; while the rule of sequence, Rule 2c, may be employed again to subdivide these small details in a horizontal direction with as much variety as is consistent with unity. Figure 280 is a leaded glass surface enrichment for doors. Note the leading lines of the enrichment as they parallel the dominant proportions of the panel opening.
INSTRUCTION SHEET
Plate 46 is a typical high school sheet of design problems, with the masses accentuated by pen shading. See Plate 15.
SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS
(a) to (e). See similar steps in Chapter IV.
SUGGESTED PROBLEM
Design a sideboard 3 feet 3 inches high with plate rack. The primary mass should have three minor horizontal divisions and three minor vertical divisions, with the horizontal divisions accented.
SUMMARY OF RULES
Sequential Progression of Minor Horizontal Space Divisions
Rule 2c. A primary mass may be divided into three or more smaller horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger mass or masses at the bottom and by sequentially reducing the height measure of each mass toward the smaller division or divisions to be located at the top of the mass.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are minor subdivisions in wood construction?
2. What is the effect of a design with dominant vertical major divisions? State its use.
3. Show some customary methods of dividing three vertical major divisions into minor subdivisions.
4. State the rule of sequential progression. Give illustrations from the industrial arts.
5. Describe the transitional stage between the point where the dominance of the vertical motive ceases and the horizontal influence begins.
6. What is the effect of a design with dominant horizontal major divisions? State its use.
7. Show some customary methods of subdividing horizontal major divisions into minor subdivisions.
8. What should be the relation in a design between the details of a project and the divisions of the primary mass?
In some respects the surface enrichment of clay is similar to that of wood as, for example, the similarity produced by inlays in clay and in wood. On the other hand the enrichment of clay is unhampered by the restricting effects of unequal resistance of the material, such as the grain of wood. Again it is limited to those effects or forms of enrichment that are capable of withstanding the intense heat to which ceramic decoration is subjected. See Frontispiece.
Courtesy of the Rookwood Potteries
Figure 281.—Filling the Saggars before Firing
Before proceeding with a design it is well for one to understand clearly the possibilities of clay enrichment. He must know what kind of designs are best suited to clay as a medium, to the intended service, and to the ultimate application of the heat of the pottery kiln. Without entering into technicalities let us briefly discuss the following processes. The first three deal with finger and tool manipulation of the clay body and are consequently the simpler of the processes. The last five are concerned chiefly with the addition of coloring pigments either to the clay or to the glaze and are, therefore, more complex in character.
Rule 9a. Surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to be able to withstand the action of heat to which all ware must be submitted.
Rule 9b. Incised, pierced, and modeled decoration in clay should be simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of the material.
1. This is the simplest form of enrichment, a process familiar to the earliest primitive potters and appropriate now for beginners. It consists of the process of lowering lines or planes into the clay body to the depth of from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch. These lines or planes should be bold and broad. They may be made with a blunt pencil or a flat pointed stick. A square, rectangular, or round stick may be used as a stamp with which to form a pattern for incising. Illustrations of simple incising may be found in Figures 283, 284, 295, 319, 330. The tiles shown are about six inches square.
2. This process is less common and, as its name implies, is carried out by cutting through the clay. It may be done with a fine wire. Either the background or the design itself may be thus removed. The effect produced is that of lightening an object such as the top of a hanging flower holder, a window flower box, or a lantern shade.
3. By adding clay to the main body, and by working this clay into low relief flower or geometric forms, one has the basic process of modeling. The slightly raised areas of clay form a pleasing play of light and shade that varies the otherwise plain surface of the ware. The process should be used with caution, for over-modeling, Figure 325, will obstruct the structural outlines and, because of its over prominence as decoration, will cease to be surface enrichment. In the technical language of the designer over-modeling is an enrichment which is not subordinated to the surface. In articles intended for service this high relief modeling is unsanitary and unsatisfactory.
Figures 286 and 287 show incising with slight modeling, while 324, 328, and 329 are examples of more complex enrichment.
With the introduction of the second group comes an added interest and difficulty, that of the introduction of color. Pigments that will withstand the application of heat are suggested at different points.
4. This process consists of removing certain areas from the clay body to the depth of one-eighth inch and filling in the depression with tinted clay. Tints formed by the addition of ten per cent or less of burnt umber or yellow ochre to the modeling clay will give interesting effects. Figures 284, 285, 320, and 321 show forms which may be developed by this process.
Sgraffito, an Italian process, is more difficult than inlaying, but the effect is similar. A thin layer of colored clay is placed over the natural clay body, and the design is developed by cutting away this colored coating in places, thus exposing the natural clay body. Figure 306. There are variations of this plan that may be attempted by the advanced designer.
5. Slip is clay mixed with water to the consistency of cream. For slip painting this mixture is thoroughly mixed with not more than ten per cent of coloring pigment as represented by the underglaze colors of the ceramist. This thick, creamy, colored slip is then painted on the surface of the clay body while damp, much as the artist would apply oil colors. The ware, when thoroughly dried, is glazed and fired, which produces the effect shown in Figures 290, 291, and 327. The color range is large; almost any color may be used with the exception of reds and strong yellows. A colorless transparent glaze should be used over beginner's slip painting.
6. This process refers to the direct introduction of the colored pigment into the glaze. By varying the glaze formula we may have a clear, transparent, or glossy glaze similar to Figure 317, a dull surfaced opaque effect, termed a matt glaze, Figure 332; or a glossy but opaque faience glaze similar to the blue and white Dutch tiles. There are other forms such as the crystalline and "reduced" glazes, but these as a rule are far beyond the ability of the beginning craftsman in ceramics.
It is possible to use these three types of glazed surface in various ways. For example, a vase form with an interesting contour may be left without further surface enrichment except that supplied by clear glaze or by a colored matt similar to certain types of Teco Ware.
It is likewise possible to apply transparent glazes over incised designs, inlay or slip painting, increasing their beauty and the serviceability of the ware. A semi-transparent glaze is sometimes placed over slip painting giving the charm inherent to the Vellum Ware of the Rookwood Potteries. Figure 332. Greens, blues, yellows, and browns, with their admixtures, are the safest combinations for the craftsman who desires to mix his own glazes.
7. This process may be seen in the examples of Newcomb Pottery illustrated particularly in Figure 314 or 326. The underglaze pigment is thinly painted upon the fired "biscuit," or unglazed ware. A thin, transparent glaze is then placed over the color, and in the final firing the underneath color shows through this transparent coating, thus illustrating the origin of the name underglaze or under-the-glaze painting. Sage-green and cobalt-blue underglaze colors are frequently used in Newcomb designs with harmonious results. The outline of the design is often incised and the underglaze color, settling into these channels, helps to accentuate the design. Figure 314.
8. This is popularly known as china painting and consists of painting directly upon the glazed surface of the ware and placing it in a china kiln where a temperature between 600 degrees and 900 degrees C. is developed. At this point the coloring pigment melts or is fused into the porcelain glaze, thus insuring its reasonable permanence. Figure 302.
The eight processes briefly described may be readily identified on the plates by referring to the figures corresponding to those which number the processes and are added to each figure number. Two processes are sometimes suggested as possible for one problem.
Different clay forms require different modes of treatment. To simplify these treatments will now be our problem. It has been found convenient to form four divisions based upon the general geometric shape of the ware. The first, Plate 47, includes rectangular and square areas; the second, Plate 48, shallow and circular forms; the third, Plate 49, low cylindrical forms; and the fourth, Plate 50, high cylindrical forms. The first three divisions have distinct modes of design treatment, while the fourth interlocks to a considerable extent with the third method. We shall now consider each plate with reference to its use and possible forms of enrichment. For the sake of brevity, the results have been condensed into tabulated forms.
Each geometric form or type on these plates has not only distinctive methods of design treatment but characteristic locations for placing the design as well. These places or zones of enrichment have been indicated in the following tabulated forms by the letters in parentheses. There are a number of zones for each plate. For example, Plate 47 has its distinctive problems as tiles, weights, etc., and five characteristic zones of enrichment described on pages 153-155 and indicated by the letters A, B, C, D, E, followed by a brief description of that zone. Each zone is still further analyzed into its accompanying type of design, inceptive axis, point of concentration, and illustrations. Each plate has the proper zone of enrichment immediately following the figure number and in turn followed by the process number.