Rule 5e. In cylindrical forms outline curves with a vertical tendency should have their turning points or units of measurement in accordance with the horizontal divisions of Rules 2a and 2b. Figures 112 and 113 have as their unit of measurement two horizontal spaces formed in accordance with Rule 2a, while Figures 116 and 117 have still more variety by the addition of a compound curve with its turning points or unit of measurement based upon Rule 2b. Figures 114 and 115 with outlines similar to those in Figures 112 and 113, respectively, have an additional enrichment, the foot and rim accentuation.
The new element of enrichment consists of accenting by adding to the design a modeled rim and a base or foot, as it is technically known. This not only strengthens the structure at these two functional points but, by adding a small section of shadow, it tends to break up the surface, Figure 127, and add to the variety of enrichment. Figures 124 to 127 show the building processes connected with this interesting and constructive addition.
Figures 116 to 119 show variations of the preceding figures while Figures 120 to 123 introduce the appendages to preceding figures. As in the designing of all appendages, discussed in Chapter V, it is the designer's intention to balance spout and handle to avoid a one-sided or top-heavy appearance.
One of the principal difficulties that confronts the amateur designer is the failure to secure variety while retaining unity. This is largely due to a lack of ideas upon the subject and a marked lack of systematic development of one theme.
Attention is directed to the diagram in the lower portion of Plate 24. The idea is to start with some simple form in columns A, B, C, D, E, F, Figure 128. Figure 129 introduces two horizontal divisions. Rule 2a. The black portion is the dominant section. Notice the change in outlines based upon this division. Figure 130 raises the division point of the two subdivisions into the upper half of the object. This brings out the need of an accented foot which is, however, not of sufficient prominence to be considered as a horizontal spacing. Figure 131 raises the horizontal division points, again causing the introduction of a larger foot and now qualifying it as a division of the whole mass. This then makes our design a three-division problem, Rule 2b, and places it under the restrictions of Rule 5e.
The feet of all of the bowls have been systematically decreased in width by the converging lines C-C while the tops have been maintained constant in width. By this simple diagram an infinite number of designs may be formed and the choice of selection from the series, thoughtfully exercised, will supply the ideal bowl, ready to be translated into a full size working drawing. It is not the idea, however, to guarantee a perfect design in each one of these divisions as that would be practically impossible, but we have systematically applied a method of determination for stimulating the imagination. A series of articles by F.H. Rhead in the Keramic Studio first suggested the system of development by means of graded rectangles.
Plate 25 shows a further elaboration of the succeeding themes. The candlestick series, Figures 132 to 138, introduces two or three-space division problems with contour turning points at A, Rule 5e, and with accented or embryonic feet and rims. The change from the purely functional and unenriched member of Figure 132 through the series shows the enrichment changing slightly to meet the needs of the three functional parts: the base, the handle, and the candle socket. Rule 5d.
Figure 139 shows a series of illustrations representing variations for containers. The first figure is without enrichment, followed by variations of the outline in the manner already suggested.
Figure 140 indicates a series of pourers with the least attractive design on the left end. This unsatisfactory design is found, upon analysis, to be due to centrally placed horizontal division violating Rule 2a. The design of the appendages in this series will again be found to conform with the rules in Chapter V. The units of measurement for the curves may be readily ascertained from observation.
Figure 141 is useful for the following purpose. It is desirable at times to develop a number of similar forms for a set, with a gradually increasing ratio of proportions, either in height or width. Figure 141 shows how the height may be increased while maintaining a common width. Notice the gradual proportionate increase of the height of the neck A-B as well as that of the body. The line X is of the utmost value in ascertaining the height of the intermediate bowls. The eye should now be so trained that the height of the neck A-B on the last bowl can be readily proportioned by eye measurement to that of the first bowl. A line similar to X will give the intermediate points.
Figure 142 varies the width in a similar manner. Notice the gradually decreasing distances C-D-E-F, the spaces for which may be determined by the eye.
INSTRUCTION SHEET
Plate 26 suggests the sequential progression of steps leading to the potter's working drawing.
SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS
(a) Draw the primary rectangle.
(b) Add limits of functional parts: handle, spout, cover, etc.
(c) Establish unit of measurement for primary rectangle contour curves.
(d) Design contour of primary mass and add the appendages to it, observing the rules pertaining to appendages and unit of measurement.
(e) Dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for the potter's use. This includes the planning of a working drawing, one-eighth larger in all directions than the preliminary design, to allow for the shrinkage of the clay body. The working drawing should also be in partial sections to show the construction of the interior of the ware.
SUGGESTED PROBLEM
Design a teapot, tea caddy, and cup showing a common unity in contour design. (Plate 82.)
SUMMARY OF RULES
Rule 5d. Parts of one design differing in function should differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire design.
Rule 5e. In cylindrical forms outline curves with a vertical tendency should have their turning points or units of measurement in accordance with the horizontal divisions of Rules 2a and 2b.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Give and illustrate the rule governing the change in the appearance of the design with the change of functional service.
2. What is the aesthetic value of curves in outline enrichment?
3. Correlate the rule governing the unit of measurement for vertical contour curves with the rules controlling horizontal divisions.
4. Show, by a diagram, the method of systematically varying the contours of circular forms: (a) by changing the horizontal divisions; (b) by varying the proportion of the primary mass.
5. What is the value of accenting the functional parts in clay design?
Courtesy of James Milliken University
Figure 142a.—Outline and Surface Enrichment in College Pottery
The contours of clay forms are generally free to follow the curves and take the direction dictated by the knowledge and taste of the designer. Metal outlines are more restricted in this respect. Metal is frequently associated with service and consequently its design is often governed by its intended use. For example, if we were to design a metal drawer pull for a buffet, it would have to be considered in relation to the character and shape of the buffet. Again, the screws with which it is attached to the buffet would influence its outline design. It is, in other words, a dependent outline.
To distinguish between an unrestricted outline and one bound by other considerations we will term the restricted outline a dependent outline, for its enrichment must be related to other forms either within or without its surface. A free outline on the other hand is one in which the designer is free to use his ideas unrestricted by any other outside consideration, except service and design consistent with the material.
In order to emphasize the nature of a dependent outline we have Rule 5f. Dependent outline enrichment should be related to essential parts of a design and influenced by their forms and functions; it must be consistent with the idea of the subject.
We will start with the simplest form of outline enrichment of base metals, the decoration of an edge. It is contrary to the laws of service to leave sharp edges on articles intended for intimate household use, except where cutting edges are required. The rounding of sharp edges is likewise dictated by the laws of beauty. The transition from one plane surface to another is assisted by a rounded edge, as the eye takes kindly to the softened play of light and shade.
This gives us the simplest form of enrichment—the beveled, chamfered, or rounded edge, Figures 143 and 144, Plate 27. The rim of a thin 18-gauge plate is likewise improved and strengthened by lapping the edge as shown in Figure 145, giving the rounded effect shown in Figure 144.
There are six important functional parts with which we are brought into common contact in industrial design of base metals. There are many more, but these are the most common and consequently are of the utmost importance to the designer as design centers. These parts are itemized as follows: (1) Corners, (2) Appendages, (3) Intermediate Points, (4) Terminals, (5) Links, (6) Details. As the decorative treatment of each part varies with the functional duty, Rule 5d, separate treatment and consideration of each part will be necessary.
Corners, as extreme turning points of a design, are often found convenient for the location of screw holes, rivets, etc. These important construction elements become prominent functional parts of the design and by custom and the laws of design, Rule 5d, they are capable of receiving outline enrichment. But the contour of the corner must be related to the screws or rivets, particularly if they are near the edge, hence our outline becomes a dependent outline and as such must be related to the rivets or screws by Rule 5f.
Figures 146 to 149 show various arrangements of this type of design. The unity of the design is not lost, and the functional parts are enriched by contours related to the elements of service (rivets). Figure 153 shows another but slightly modified example of the same laws applied to hinge construction. The enriched outline in this case is closely associated with the holes in the hinge. The hinges in turn must be related to the object for which they are designed. Figure 150 gives a common example of corner enrichment by means of varying the edge at the corners, i.e., by rounding the tray corners.
As appendages have distinct functional duties their design may vary as the design of the arm of the human figure differs from the head. Yet, as parts of the same body, they must fit the shape of the object to which they are attached. The candle holder and handle as appendages in Figure 150 are designed in sympathetic relation by means of tangential and similar curves sufficiently varied to give the eye a feeling of variety in the design. The novel single flower holders, Figures 151 and 152, with the glass test tube acting as a container show other possible forms of the appendage design. The first is informal while the second is formal, but both adhere to the first simple rules of appendage design. Rule 4a, etc.
Figure 156a.—Candlestick, Rendered by E.R.
The enrichment of center or intermediate points should be handled with great care and with a definite reason. Careless handling may cause the design to lack unity. Figures 154 and 155 show a simple twist as enrichment. The serviceable reason for this is to obtain a grip at the point of the twist. Again, it varies the character of the straight edges and adds interest without loss of compactness or unity. If one is desirous of widening a vertical or horizontal rod, the enrichment made by welding a number of small rods together with a spreading twist gives a pleasing and serviceable handle. Figure 156.
Plate 28
As the public demands a happy ending to a story or a play, so does the eye demand a well-designed ending to a design. The part that terminal enrichment plays in industrial design is, therefore, to say the least, important to us as designers. Figure 157 illustrates terminals in thin metal and is shown by courtesy of the School Arts Magazine from one of the articles by Mr. Augustus Rose. The outlines are in part dependent in character, controlled by rivets. Notice the change of curve as the function changes from the dependent curve of the rivet area to the free outline of the handle and again from the handle to the cutting blade; a functional change of marked character, but in thorough unity with the entire design. It is again emphasized that whether the design possesses a free or a dependent outline, or a combination of both types, all parts of the design must be held together by entire unity. The rivets are occasionally placed toward the edge and a domed boss is used to accent the center as is shown in Figure 158.
As the Curve of Force was a valuable curve in wood construction, so we find it an equally valuable curve for wrought metal. Its recurrence again and again in industrial design leads us to appreciate its value in the arts. It is the Ionic volute handed down to us in its present form from the time of the Greeks, who developed it to a high state of perfection.
While its geometric development is a tedious process, it may be easily constructed for practical purposes by the following method. In Figure 159, P represents a small cylinder of wood, possibly a dowel. A strong piece of thread, or fine wire, is wrapped around the base of the dowel a number of times and a loop is formed in the free end. A pencil with a sharp point is inserted in the loop and the pencil and dowel are placed together on a sheet of paper. As the thread unwinds from the dowel the point of the pencil will describe a volute which may be developed indefinitely. It will be noticed that no corresponding parts of the curve are concentric and it thus has constant variety. It has been termed the Curve of Beauty and is found in nature in the wonderfully designed shell of the nautilus.
It is advisable to form several templates for the volute out of bent wrought iron, of different sizes, and to practice drawing the curve many times to accustom the hand and the eye to its changes of direction. The "eye" or center portion is sometimes terminated by thinning and expanding in the manner shown in Figure 160.
One form of application of the volute is shown in the terminal points of the candlestick in Figure 161. It is here shown combined with the second volute in the form of a reverse curve. In Figure 162, it has been combined with a smaller but reversed volute at the upper end. The entire and combined curve is commonly known as a Greek Scroll. In Figure 163 the Greek Scroll has been combined with the reverse curve of Figure 161 to form a portion of the bracket. In this figure we find the familiar curve of force faithfully serving its function as a supporting member for the top portion of the bracket.
A link is a convenient filler in connecting parts of a right angle. It likewise serves as a brace in connecting several disconnected parts and is useful in maintaining the unity of a design. Figure 164 shows a common form of link with its ends thinned and expanded as shown in Figure 160. This construction may, however, be disregarded as it is technically quite difficult to accomplish.
Details are the smaller portions of a design and are similar to the trimmings and minor brackets of a building in relative importance. They enter to a considerable extent into wrought metal grille design, and are generally formed of the link, Greek scroll, or the Ionic volute, so as to be in harmony with the other parts of the design outline. Rule 5f. Their presence and use may be readily detected on Plate 28.
Rule 5g. A curve should join a straight line with either a tangential or right angle junction.
As we are now familiar with continuity in wood moulding curves we should feel, in reviewing the figures in this chapter, the value of flowing continuity and tangential junction points (Rule 5g) necessary in wrought metal enrichment. The curves that we have considered are adapted to the materials and a comparatively large and new field of design is opened to the designer through a combination of curves mentioned. Plate 30 is self-explanatory and brings out the general application of the foregoing principles as applied to cast bronze hardware. It is interesting to notice the change of enrichment paralleling the change of function as outlined in Rule 5d.
Little has been written regarding the designing of jewelry. As can be readily seen, a semi-precious stone is the controlling factor in the major portion of the designs with silver as a background. Any enrichment merely accentuates the beauty of the setting. This statement would lead us to consider the outline as dependent in character and thoroughly related to the stone. It is necessary then to take the stone as a point of departure. The standard stone cuttings used in simple jewelry are shown in Figures 166 to 170. The first three and the last are cabochon cut, elliptical in contour with flat bottoms. The long axes have been drawn in each instance.
With Figures 171 to 174 we begin to see the close relation between the stone and its enclosing form. Rule 5f. A longer major axis in the stone calls for an increased length in the corresponding axis of the silver foundation or background. It is really a re-echo of the proportions of the primary mass of the stone in the mass of the silver. It is well for the beginner to make the axis of the stone and the silver blank coincide and to use this long axis as a basis for future enrichment. In a vertical primary mass, similar to the one shown in Figure 180, it is better design to place the stone a short distance above the geometric center of the mass as it insures a sense of stability and balance. A stone when placed toward the bottom of a design of this nature is inclined to give a feeling of "settling down" or lost balance.
Figure 176 varies the design shown in Figure 171. The two circles related to the stone are connected by four silver grains or balls. Figure 177 shows an attempt to enrich the contour of the silver, but there is a resulting tendency to detract from the simplicity of the unbroken outline and, as a result, little is gained by its attempted enrichment. Figures 178 and 179 show a better form of enrichment by accentuating the outline. This may be accomplished either by engraving a single line paralleling the contour or by soldering a thin wire around the outline.
While the top view of an article of jewelry may have been carefully designed the side view in most instances is totally neglected. The side view should show a steady graduation from the surface of the silver to the outline of the stone. This prevents the stone from bulging from the surface like a sudden and unusual growth. Doming, small wedges of silver, or a twist around the bezel may accomplish this as can be readily seen in Figures 181, 182, and 183.
While emphasis should be placed upon simplicity of outline, certain well regulated forms of enrichment may be added to the contour and enhance the beauty of the stone. Such motives with constructive steps are shown in Figure 184 and their application in Figures 185 to 188. It will be noticed that the enrichment invariably leads up to the stone which is the center of interest in the design. The ornament is likewise based upon the prominent axes of the stone.
Figures 189, 190, and 191 are types of beaten and raised silver work and show characteristic forms in silver, with two examples of accented outline enrichment. As they are curvilinear forms, their design is similar in many ways to clay forms of similar proportions and uses.
INSTRUCTION SHEET
Plate 31 shows the design steps necessary to the evolution of a lamp in two materials. A full size working drawing should follow Figure D.
SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS
(a) Draw the unenriched primary mass.
(b) For dependent contours, locate the elements of service within the primary mass. This may be interpreted to mean rivets, screw holes, semi-precious stones, etc.
(c) Determine upon the portion of the contours to be enriched, gauged by its need for grace, lightness, and variety. This enrichment is preferably concentrated at the following points: edges, corners, appendages, intermediate points, terminals, links, and details. These points may be combined provided the result does not violate the simplicity of the structural lines.
(d) Draw the enrichment in the predetermined area, causing it to be in harmony with such interior functional parts as screw holes, rivets, semi-precious stones, etc. Utilize suggested curves.
(e) Review all of the contour curves added to the design. Are they feeble compass curves or do they have the character of long sweeping curves with short "snappy" turns for variety?
(f) Test the entire design for unity. Does the eye move smoothly through all parts of the contour? Does the design "hold together"? Are all links and appendages joined to the primary mass in a graceful tangential manner?
(g) Dimension, add additional views, and details, if necessary, and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use.
SUGGESTED PROBLEMS
Design an electric table lamp with square copper rod as a support, feet, and copper shade.
Design a hinge for a cedar chest.
SUMMARY OF RULES
Rule 5f. Dependent outline enrichment should be related to essential parts of a design and influenced by their forms and functions; it must be consistent with the idea of the subject.
Rule 5g. A curve should join a straight line with either a tangential or right angle junction.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Contrast contour enrichment of wood, clay, and metal.
2. Define free and dependent outline in contour enrichment of base metal.
3. Describe and explain the use of the Ionic volute in contour enrichment of metal.
4. Define and present illustrations of contour enrichment designed for edges, corners, appendages, intermediate points, terminals, links, and other details in base metal.
5. Define and illustrate free and dependent contour enrichment of precious metal.
Figure 190a.—Union of Outline Enrichment on Clay and Metal
With this chapter we enter upon a consideration of the third and last major division of Industrial Arts Design, that of Surface Enrichment.
We have considered in previous chapters the subject of contour or outline enrichment. Now consider for a moment the fact that articles such as a square box, or tile, are not suited to outline enrichment, yet they have large, flat, and rather monotonous surfaces capable of decoration. It is readily seen that such surfaces will admit of further elaboration which we will distinguish from contour enrichment by using the term Surface Enrichment. As in contour enrichment, so in surface enrichment, the added element of design not only increases the beauty of the object but it likewise, if properly applied, gives apparent added strength to the structure.
Rule 6a. Surfaces to be enriched must admit of enrichment.
Strictly utilitarian articles should not be ornamented by surface enrichment. As an example, a wooden mixing spoon, bowl, or wooden knife handle should not be enriched by carving, as the carving would interfere with the proper cleansing of the article. A surface exposed to considerable wear should not be enriched. Objects not strictly in the utilitarian class, such as a paper knife, book stall, envelope holder, or library table may be appropriately enriched in an unostentatious manner so that they will harmonize with their surroundings. But the enrichment should first be placed upon the surface in such a manner that it will not interfere with the functional use of the article for service. Large projections upon the back of a chair or upon the handle of a paper cutter are unpleasant and interfere with intended uses.
Rule 6b. Surface enrichment must be related to the structural contours but must not obscure the actual structure.
Careful consideration should be given to the often-mentioned law that the surface enrichment must be thoroughly related to structure and contour but not so as to obscure either. We must keep in mind the fact that it is necessary to support the structure, not to cover it up by related ornament, as in Figure 191a.
Most critics of industrial design complain of an overwhelming desire upon the part of the designer to over-decorate the structure. Surface enrichment runs wild over steam radiators, stoves, and wooden rocking chairs. Reserve is the watchword recommended as of extreme importance. The illustrations in this chapter are restricted to a limited range of design motives for the express purpose of simplifying the number of recommended methods.
Rule 6c. The treatment must be appropriate to the material.
The close-fibered woods with smooth, even textures are capable of more delicate enrichment than woods of coarser grain. Small articles are generally seen from a close range and should, therefore, be ornamented with finer decoration than large articles, such as a piece of furniture that is to be seen from a distance. The latter should have surface enrichment of sufficient boldness to "carry" or to be distinct from a distant point. Furthermore the enrichment should not have a "stuck on" appearance, but be an integral part of the original mass.
There are three distinct means of ornamenting wood: (1) inlaying, depending for interest upon the difference in value and hue of the different inlaying woods used; (2) carved enrichment, depending upon line and mass for its beauty and made visible by contrasts of light and shade; (3) painting or staining of the surface with the interest dependent upon the colors or stains and their relation to each other and to the hue of the wood. It has been deemed wise to consider the first two types in the present chapter, and leave the last type for later consideration. In Chapters XV, XVI, and XVII, accentuation has been placed on wood coloring. The designer is advised to read those chapters before attempting to stain or color his problem.
Treating surface enrichment in its listed order we find that inlaying is one of the most common and best forms of enrichment for wood work. As inlaying readily adapts itself to bands and borders, emphasis is placed upon them.
Rule 6i. Inlayed enrichment should never form strong or glaring contrasts with the parent surface.
Two conspicuous errors are often associated with inlaid designs. The first is the use of woods affording a glaring contrast with that of the project. Figure 209, Page 106. The right contrast of value is established when the inlay seems neither to rise from the surface nor sink through it. It should remain on the surface of the plane to be enriched, for it is surface enrichment. Figures 210, 211, and 212 are illustrative of pleasing contrasts.
The second specific glaring error is the use of unrelated inlay. As an example, an Indian club is created by gluing many varicolored woods around a central core. The result of the pattern so formed has little relation to the structural lines, fails entirely to support them; and, as a result, should be discarded.
Carving is difficult for the average beginner in wood working design, therefore merely the simplest forms of the craft are suggested as advisable. Figure 205a. If an elaborate design is desired (Figure 205c), it should be first drawn in outline and finally modeled in relief by Plastelene. This model is then an effective guide for the carver, supplementing the original outline drawing.