Problems: Tiles for tea and coffee pots, paper weights, window boxes; architectural tiles for floors, and fire places.

(A) Zone of Enrichment: In the margin.
Reason for Choice: Central area to be devoted to zone of service requiring simplicity in design.
Type of Design: Bands or borders.
Inceptive Axis: For corners; the bisector of the angle.
Points of Concentration: The corners and, if desired, at equal intervals between the corners.
Illustrations: Figures 283, 284, 286, 287, 288.

(B) Zone of Enrichment: center of surface, free ornament.
Type of Design: Initials, monograms, street numbers, geometric patterns, and other examples for free ornament. A star or diamond is not appropriate enrichment for a square area unless properly related to the contour by connecting areas.
Inceptive Axes: Vertical or horizontal diameters or diagonals.
Points of Concentration: Center of embellishment.
Illustrations: Figure 285.

(C) Zone of Enrichment: full surface enrichment in a horizontal position.
Type of Design: A symmetrical pattern generally radiating from the geometric center of the surface and covering at least two-thirds of the surface.
Inceptive Axes: Diameters or diagonals of the area.
Points of Concentration: At the corners or the center of the outer margin; at geometric center, as in a rosette.
Illustrations: Figures 283, 289, and 291.

(D) Zone of Enrichment: full surface enrichment in a vertical position.
Type of Design: A symmetrical pattern with a strong upward movement and covering more than one-half of the surface.
Inceptive Axis: The vertical center line.
Point of Concentration: Upper section of the surface.
Illustrations: Figures 290 and 292.

(E) Zone of Enrichment: free balance over full surface.
Type of Design: Semi-decorative motive preferably covering the entire surface.
Inceptive Axis: Masses freely balanced over the geometric center of the area.
Point of Concentration: Near, but not in the exact center.
Illustrations: Figures 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298.
Note: The points of concentration should be accented by slight contrast of value and hue. See chapters on color.

Problems: Plates, saucers, ash trays, card receivers, almond and candy bowls.

(A) Zone of Enrichment: margin of interior surface; margin of exterior surface.
Type of Design: Bands or borders thoroughly related to the structural contours. Bands for exterior enrichment may be placed directly on the contour, Figures 299 and 301, thus forming an accented contour (F) or slightly removed from it, as in Figure 300.
Inceptive Axes: For interior surfaces, the radii of the contour circle generally supply the axes of symmetry.
Points of Concentration: For interior surfaces, the points of concentration may be placed in or near the radii of the area.
Illustrations: Figures 302, 303, 304, 305, 306.

Problems: Cups, pitchers, steins, nut and rose bowls, low vase forms.

(A) Zone of Enrichment: upper margin of exterior.
Type of Design: Borders of units joining each other or connected
by bands or spots acting as connecting links. Rule 9c.
Inceptive Axes: Vertical elements of the exterior surface. Elements are imaginary lines dividing the exterior surface into any given number of vertical sections. Elements used as center lines form the axes of symmetry about which the butterfly of Figure 308 and similar designs are constructed.
Points of Concentration: On each vertical element.
Illustrations: Figures 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 316.

(D) Zone of Enrichment: full vertical surface.
Type of Design: Extended borders with strongly developed vertical lines or forms. Less than one-half of the surface may be covered.
Inceptive Axes: Vertical elements.
Points of Concentration: In upper portion of vertical elements, hence in upper portion of area.
> Illustrations: Figures 307, 314, 317, 318.

(E) Zone of Enrichment: free balance of full surface. (See D, above).
Illustration: Figure 315.

Problems: Vases, jars, pitchers, tall flower holders, covered jars for tea, crackers, or tobacco.

(A) Zone of Enrichment: margin of exterior.
Type of Design: Borders of geometric units, freely balanced floral units, and other natural motives placed in upper margin of mass.
Inceptive Axes: Vertical elements of cylinder.
Points of Concentration: In upper portion of vertical elements.
Illustrations: Figures 319, 320, 321, 327, 331, 332.

(D) Zone of Enrichment: full surface of exterior.
Type of Design: Free of formal conventionalized unit repeated on each vertical element. The units may be juxtaposed or may be connected by bands or similar links.
Inceptive Axes: Vertical elements of cylinder.
Point of concentration: In upper portion of vertical elements.
Illustrations: Figures 322, 323, 324, 326, 328, 329.

The reader should carefully consider the postulate and various divisions of Rule 7 and try to apply them to the material now under consideration. Acknowledgment is made for material supplied by the Rookwood Potteries for Figures 288, 289, 292, 293, 294, 297, 298, 315; 327 and 332; Newcomb Potteries, Figures 314, 316, 317, 318, 326; Teco Potteries, 329; Keramic Studio Publishing Company, 302, 307, 308, 310, 312.

INSTRUCTION SHEET

Plate 51 illustrates the marginal surface enrichment of low cylindrical forms, with part surface enrichment of two higher forms.

SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS

(a) Draw primary mass:

For square or rectangular areas draw square rectangle, etc.

For shallow circular forms draw a circle.

For low cylindrical forms draw a rectangle; subdivide this if desired by a unit of measurement into two horizontal divisions.

For high cylindrical forms draw a rectangle; subdivide this if desired by a unit of measurement into two or three horizontal divisions. Rule 5e.

(b) Design simple contour enrichment based upon these units of measurement.

(c) Locate zone of enrichment.

(d) Draw inceptive axes:

For square or rectangular areas draw diameters, diagonals, or both.

For shallow circular forms draw radii of the primary circle; concentric circles for bands.

For low cylindrical forms draw the elements of the underlying cylindrical form for extended borders or lines paralleling the top or bottom of the primary mass for bands.

For high cylindrical forms draw inceptive axes similar to low cylindrical forms.

(e) Locate points of concentration in these inceptive axes.

(f) Determine manner and amount of surface enrichment.

(g) Add leading lines and develop these into surface enrichment.

(h) Make potter's working drawing, full size (See Plate 26). Add the necessary amount for shrinkage and otherwise prepare the drawing for potter's use.

(i) Make a paper tracing of the surface enrichment for transfer to clay body and cut a zinc or tin template as a contour guide in building the form.

SUGGESTED PROBLEMS

Design a cider or chocolate set with appropriate surface enrichment.

Design an architectural tile 6 in. by 9 in. for accenting a brick fireplace in the home.

SUMMARY OF RULES

Rule 9a. Surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to be able to withstand the action of heat to which all ware must be submitted.

Rule 9b. Incised, pierced, and modeled decoration in clay should be simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of the material.

Rule 9c. A border should not be located at the point of greatest curvature in the contour of a cylindrical form. The contour curve is of sufficient interest in itself at that point.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Compare the surface enrichment of clay with that of wood.

2. State a major requirement of a good pottery design.

3. Give the broad divisions into which it is possible to divide the decorative processes of clay surface enrichment.

4. Name and briefly describe eight methods of enriching the surface of clay.

5. What precautions should be exercised with regard to the use of incised, pierced, and modeled decoration?

6. Should a border be placed at the point of greatest curvature of the contour? Give reasons.

7. Name method of classifying structural forms in clay into four groups.

8. State problems and possible zones of enrichment in each group. Give reasons for choice.

9. State type of design unit, conventionalized, natural or artificial forms, location of inceptive axis, points of concentration, and process for each zone of enrichment.

10. What is an element of a cylindrical surface?

Chapter XIII
SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF PRECIOUS METALS

Small Flat Planes

Chapter XII referred to clay as a free and plastic material adapted to a wide range of surface enrichment processes. Metal as a more refractory material offers greater resistance to the craftsman and is relatively more limited in its capacity for surface enrichment. As was the case in the consideration of contour enrichment for designing purposes, it is necessary in the consideration of surface enrichment to divide metal into two groups: precious and base metals. As the field of design in both base and precious metals is large, we shall consider the surface enrichment of precious metals only in this chapter.

Following an order similar in character to that used in clay designing, problems in both base and precious metals may be divided into four classified groups as follows: flat, square, rectangular, or irregular planes; shallow circular forms; low cylindrical forms; high cylindrical forms. Designs included in the first group, flat planes, comprise such problems as are typically represented by tie pins, fobs, rings, and pendants. The design problems presented by these examples are so important that it is wise to restrict this chapter to flat planes.

Rule 10g. The inceptive axis should pass through and coincide with one axis of a stone, and at the same time be sympathetically related to the structure.

Rule 10h. The position of the inceptive axis should be determined by: (1) use of the project as ring, pendant, or bar pin, (2) character of the primary mass as either vertical or horizontal in proportion.

The semi-precious or precious stone is commonly found to be the point of concentration of these designs. The inceptive axes of tie pins, pendants, and fobs are generally vertical center lines because of the vertical positions of the objects when worn. The inceptive axes, moreover, should pass through the point of concentration and, at the same time, be sympathetically related to the structure. Rings and bar pins are frequently designed with horizontal inceptive axes, so determined by their horizontal characteristics and positions.

The point of concentration for tie pins, pendants, and fobs in formal balance, in addition to coinciding with the inceptive axis, is generally located above or below the geometric center of the primary mass. The point of concentration for rings and bar pins is placed in the horizontal inceptive axis and centrally located from left to right.

As a step preliminary to designing, and in order that the enrichment may be conventionalized or adapted to conform to the requirements of tools, processes, and materials, it is now imperative to become familiar with a number of common forms of surface enrichment in metal. There are eight processes frequently encountered in the decoration of silver and gold: piercing, etching, chasing or repousséing, enameling, inlaying, stone setting, building, carving. To these may be added planishing, frosting or matting, and oxidizing as methods employed to enrich the entire surface. Economy of material is of prime importance in the designing of precious metal and, particularly in gold projects, conservation of the metals should be an urgent consideration in all designs.

Rule 10a. Designs in precious metals should call for the minimum amount of metal necessary to express the idea of the designer for two reasons: (1) good taste; (2) economy of material.

A non-technical and brief description of each process follows. All designs in this chapter may be identified by referring to the process numbers after the figure description as 1, 3, 5; 2, 4, 6, corresponding to the key numbers on Plate 52. A design to be submitted to the craftsman should be a graphic record of technical facts in addition to good design, which requires that we should have an expressive technical means of rendering each process. The last column, on Plate 52, indicates this rendering. In addition to this rendering each one of the eight technical processes has been carried through three design steps. 1. (first column, Plate 52) Planning the original primary mass, with its inceptive axis suggested by the structure and intended use. It passes through the point of concentration. 2. (second column, Plate 52). The division of the primary mass into zones of service and enrichment with the suggestion of the leading lines which, at some points, are parallel to the contours and lead up to the point of concentration. The contours in this column have, in several instances, been changed to add lightness and variety to the problem. 3. The last step (column three, Plate 52) shows the design with graphic rendering suggestive of the completed process.

Technical Processes and Methods of Illustrating Same in a Design

1. Removal of design unit or background by means of the jeweler's saw. Bridges of metal should be left to support firmly all portions of the design. Test this by careful study of the design. Rendering—shade all pierced portions of the design in solid black. Slightly tint portions of the design passing under other parts. Illustration, Figure 336.

Rule 10j. All surface enrichment should have an appearance of compactness or unity. Pierced spots or areas should be so used as to avoid the appearance of having been scattered on the surface without thought to their coherence.

2. Coating either design or background with an acid resistant, to be followed by immersion of the article in an acid bath. Allow the unprotected portion to be attacked and eaten by the acid to a slight depth. Rendering—slightly tint all depressed or etched parts of the design. Illustration, Figure 339.

3. The embossing and fine embellishment of a metal surface by the application of the hammer and punches. The work is conducted mainly from the top surface. Rendering—stipple all parts of the background not raised by the process. Chasing should seem an integral part of the background and not appear stuck upon it. Illustration, Figure 342. Rule 10k.

4. A process of enameling over metal in which the ground is cut away into a series of shallow troughs into which the enamel is melted. Exercise reserve in the use of enamel. Over-decoration tends to cheapen this valuable form of decoration. Rendering—shade the lower and right-hand sides of all enameled areas to suggest relief. Illustration, Figure 345. If possible render in tempera color.

Rule 10i. Caution should be exercised with regard to the use of enamel. Over-decoration by this material tends to cheapen both process and design.

Rule 10l. The lanes or margins between enameled spots should be narrower than the lane or margin between the enamel and the contour of the primary mass.

5. The process of applying wire, etc., to an incision on metal either by burnishing or fusing the metal into the cavities. Rendering—tint the darker metal or, if possible, render in color. Illustration, Figure 348.

6. An enrichment of the surface by the addition of semi-precious or precious stones. Other enrichment is generally subordinated to the stone which then becomes the point of concentration. All enrichment should lead toward the stone. Small stones may, however, be used to accentuate other points of concentration in surface enrichment. Rendering—shade the lower and right-side of the stone to suggest relief. Pierced subordinate enrichment should be shaded in solid black. A concentric line should be drawn outside of the contour of the stone to designate the thin holding band, or bezel, enclosing the stone on all sides. Illustration, Figure 351.

Rule 10d. Surface enrichment should at some point parallel the contours of both primary mass and point of concentration, especially whenever the latter is a stone or enamel.

Rule 10e. In the presence of either stone or enamel as a point of concentration, surface enrichment should be regarded as an unobtrusive setting, or background.

Rule 10f. Stone or enamel used as a point of concentration should form contrast with the metal, either in color, brilliancy, or value, or all three combined.

7. The process of applying leaves, wire, grains, and other forms of surface enrichment to the plane of the metal. These may afterwards be carved or chased. Rendering—shade the lower and right-hand lines; slightly tint the lower planes of the metal. Illustration, Figure 354.

8. The process of depressing or raising certain portions of the metal surface by means of chisels and gravers. By the use of these tools the surface is modeled into planes of light and shade, to which interest is added if the unaggressive tool marks are permitted to remain on the surface. Rendering—shade the raised and depressed portions to express the modeling planes. As this is a difficult technical process the designer is advised to model the design in plastelene or jewelers' wax first. Illustration, Figure 357.

Rule 10k. Built, carved, and chased enrichment should have the higher planes near the point of concentration. It is well to have the stone as the highest point above the primary mass. When using this form of enrichment, the stone should never appear to rise abruptly from the primary mass, but should be approached by a series of rising planes.

9. The process of smoothing and, at the same time, hardening the surface of the metal with a steel planishing hammer. The hammer strokes give an interesting texture to the surface which may be varied, from the heavily indented to the smooth surface, at the will of the craftsman. The more obvious hammer strokes are not to be desired as they bring a tool process into too much prominence for good taste. Rendering—print desired finish on the drawing.

10. A process of sand blasting or scratch brushing a metal surface to produce an opaque or "satin" finish. Rendering—similar to planishing.

11. A process of darkening the surface of metal by the application of chemicals. Potassium sulphite will supply a deep, rich black to silver and copper. Rendering—see Planishing.

The eleven processes mentioned above are among those which, by recent common practice, have become familiar to the craftsman in precious metals. While they do not cover the entire field, they at least give the beginner an opportunity to design intelligently in terms of the material.

Plate 53 is mainly the enrichment of the flat plane by the addition of semi-precious stones (process six). Whatever surface enrichment is added to this design becomes dependent enrichment and quite analogous to dependent contour enrichment, Plate 29, inasmuch as it has to be designed with special reference to the shape and character of the stone. Figures 358 to 363 are examples of dependent contour enrichment; Figures 364 to 371 are examples of dependent surface enrichment. Figures 358 to 367 are based upon vertical inceptive axes as appropriate to their intended service. The point of concentration may be located at practically any point on this inceptive axis, provided the major axis of the stone coincides with the inceptive axis. The best results are obtained by placing the stone a little above or below the exact geometrical center of the primary mass.

Figures 368 to 372 show articles based upon a horizontal inceptive axis. The stone, in accordance with formal balance, is in the geometric center from left to right. One notices the important fact that the surface enrichment must bring the stone and contour together in sympathetic relation and, at the same time, be related to both stone and contour. This again brings out the meaning of dependent surface enrichment. The contour enrichment is to be kept as simple as possible and the interest concentrated upon the surface enrichment. The accentuation of both surface and contour enrichment in a single design marks the height of bad taste in design.

Rule 10b. Contour and surface enrichment should never appear to compete for attention in the same design.

Plate 54 shows flat planes, the service of which suggests vertical inceptive axes. Figure 380 is noted as an exception to this vertical inceptive axis as it possesses a vertical primary mass but with radial inceptive axes. The interesting manner by which the dynamic leaves of the outer border transmit their movement to the inner border, which in turn leads toward the point of concentration, is worthy of attention. The points of concentration in other designs on this plate are all contained in the vertical inceptive axes.

Plate 55, at first thought, would seem to fall under the classification of low cylindrical forms but when reference is made to Figure 385 it is readily seen that the ring has to be first developed as a flat plane, to be afterwards bent into the required form. Care should be taken to keep the design narrow enough to be visible when the ring is in position on the finger.

The long horizontal band of the ring supplies the motive for the horizontal inceptive axis as a common basis or starting point for a large number of designs. If the designer so desires, the vertical axis of the finger is authority for an elliptical stone to be placed with its major axis as a vertical line in harmony with the finger axis. In any instance the designer seeks to lead the eye from the horizontal portion of the ring (the finger band) toward the point of concentration (the stone), by means of surface enrichment. A long sloping contour curve helps, as a transition line in the boundary, to carry the attention from the stone to the finger band. A great number of devices are used to complete a similar transition in the surface enrichment. Figure 390a. Too much piercing weakens the structure, and it is therefore to be avoided.

Plate 56 suggests some vertical flat planes for pendants. While no definite rule can be stated for the location of the stone, from past experience, it is easier for beginners to place the stone on the vertical inceptive axis slightly above the geometric center of the primary mass. Figures 391 to 395. A design thus formed is less likely to appear heavy, although there is nothing arbitrary about the suggestion.

Rule 10c. Parts of a design differing in function should differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire design.

In pendant design the surface enrichment generally carries the attention from the contour of the pendant to the stone, thus insuring unity at this point, while the contour lines often lead the attention from the pendant to the chain. The eye should move in unbroken dynamic movement from pendant to chain. The chain may have points of accent designed to vary the even distribution of the links. These accents are frequently composed of small stones with surface enrichment sympathetically designed in unity with pendant, chain, and stone. Figure 401 shows examples of this arrangement and similarly the need of a horizontal inceptive axis to harmonize with the length of the chain. These small accents are quite similar in design to bar pin motives.

Rule 10m. Transparent and opaque stones or enamel should not be used in the same design.

For the designer's purposes we may consider two kinds of stones, the transparent and the opaque. These should not be mixed in one design. The most favorable stones are those forming contrasts of value or brilliancy with the metal as, for example, the amethyst, lapis lazuli, or New Zealand jade, with silver; or the dark topaz, or New Zealand jade, with gold. Lack of these contrasts gives dull, monotonous effects that fail to make the stone the point of concentration. Figure 467. These effects may be partially overcome by frosting, plating, or oxidizing the metal, thus forming stronger contrasts of value.

INSTRUCTION SHEET

Plates 52 and 57 are representative of the steps, processes, and problems for school use.

SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS

(a) Draw the primary mass.

(b) Locate the inceptive axis in this primary mass with its direction determined by the ultimate use or position of the primary mass and its general shape.

(c) Locate zone of enrichment.

(d) Locate point of concentration in the zone of enrichment and in the inceptive axis.

(e) Design simple contour enrichment.

(f) Design leading lines in sympathy with the contour and leading toward the point of concentration.

(g) Elaborate the leading lines in sympathy with the material, the type of enrichment, the contours, and the inceptive axis.

(h) Render in the technical manner suggested by Plate 52, dimension the primary mass, and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use.

SUGGESTED PROBLEM

Design a built-up ring using an elliptical cabochon cut stone as the point of concentration. The inceptive axis is vertical.

SUMMARY OF RULES

Small Flat Planes

Rule 10a. Designs in precious metals should call for the minimum amount of metal necessary to express the idea of the designer for two reasons: (1) good taste; (2) economy of material.

Rule 10b. Contour and surface enrichment should never appear to compete for attention in the same design.

Rule 10c. Parts of a design differing in function should differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire design.

Rule 10d. Surface enrichment should at some point parallel the contours of both primary mass and point of concentration, especially whenever the latter is a stone or enamel.

Rule 10e. In the presence of either stone or enamel as a point of concentration, surface enrichment should be regarded as an unobtrusive setting, or background.

Rule 10f. Stone or enamel used as a point of concentration should form contrast with the metal, either in color, brilliancy, or value, or all three combined.

Rule 10g. The inceptive axis should pass through and coincide with one axis of a stone, and at the same time be sympathetically related to the structure.

Rule 10h. The position of the inceptive axis should be determined by (1) use of the project as ring, pendant, or bar pin, (2) character of the primary mass as either vertical or horizontal in proportion.

Rule 10i. Caution should be exercised with regard to the use of enamel. Over-decoration by this material tends to cheapen both process and design.