The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Steam Engine Explained and Illustrated (Seventh Edition), by Dionysius Lardner

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The Steam Engine
Explained and Illustrated

WATT.

Engraved by H. Adlard, from a Drawing by H. Corbould,
taken with the permission of James Watt, Esq.

FROM THE STATUE BY CHANTREY.

London: Taylor & Walton, Upper Gower Street.

THE

STEAM ENGINE

EXPLAINED AND ILLUSTRATED;

WITH
AN ACCOUNT OF ITS INVENTION AND PROGRESSIVE
IMPROVEMENT,

AND ITS APPLICATION TO

NAVIGATION AND RAILWAYS;

INCLUDING ALSO

A Memoir of Watt.

DIONYSIUS LARDNER, D.C.L. F.R.S.
&c. &c.

SEVENTH EDITION,

ILLUSTRATED BY ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.

LONDON:

PRINTED FOR TAYLOR AND WALTON,

28. UPPER GOWER STREET.

MDCCCXL.

London:

Printed by A. Spottiswoode,

New-Street-Square.

THE RIGHT HONOURABLE

HENRY LORD BROUGHAM AND VAUX,

FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY,

AND

MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF FRANCE,

AS A MARK OF PUBLIC RESPECT

AND

A TESTIMONY OF PRIVATE REGARD,

THIS WORK

INSCRIBED, BY HIS ATTACHED FRIEND,

THE AUTHOR.

ADVERTISEMENT.

The Drawings for several of the Cuts in this Volume have been taken, by the permission of Mr. Weale, from the admirable Plates annexed to the last edition of Tredgold on the Steam Engine and on Steam Navigation. This acknowledgment is especially due for the Illustrations which abound in this Volume.

London, June, 1840.

LONDON ENTRANCE TO THE BIRMINGHAM RAIL-ROAD.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.
PRELIMINARY MATTER.
The Steam Engine, a Subject of popular Interest 4
Effects of Steam 5
Great Power of Steam 7
Object of this Work 9
Disputes respecting the Invention 11
Hero of Alexandria's Machine 13
Blasco De Garay's Proposition to propel Vessels by a Machine 16
Solomon De Caus 17
Giovanni Branca proposes to work Mills by Steam 22
Marquis of Worcester 23
Mechanical Properties of Fluids 25
Elastic and Inelastic Fluids 25
Elasticity of Gases 28
Effects of Heat 29
Application of these Principles to the Engines of Hero, De Caus, and Lord Worcester 30
Sir Samuel Morland 34
Denis Papin 36
Atmospheric Pressure 38
Weight of Air 39
Pressure of Air 41
Barometer 41
Elastic Force of Air and Gases 42
Force obtained by a Vacuum 43
Common Pump 43
Rarefaction by Heat 44
Process of filling Thermometers 44
Papin's Method of producing a Vacuum 44
His Discovery of the Condensation of Steam 45
Thomas Savery 47
CHAP. II.
ENGINES OF SAVERY AND NEWCOMEN.
Savery's Engine 49
Boilers and their Appendages 50
Working Apparatus described 51
Mode of Operation 52
Defects of Savery's Engine 58
Newcomen's Engine described by Papin 62
Newcomen and Cawley obtain a Patent for Atmospheric Engine 65
Accidental Discovery of Condensation by Injection 69
Potter's Discovery of the Method of working the Valves 71
His Contrivance improved by the Substitution of a Plug Frame 72
Advantages of the Atmospheric Engine over that of Savery 72
The Power of Savery's Engine restricted 73
It contained no new Principle 73
Its practical Superiority 73
CHAP. III.
EARLY CAREER AND DISCOVERIES OF JAMES WATT.
Atmospheric Engine improved by Beighton 75
Smeaton's Improvements in the Atmospheric Engine 76
Brindley obtains a Patent for Improvement in 76
Invents the Self-regulating Feeder 76
Infancy of James Watt 77
His Descent and Parentage 77
Anecdotes of his Boyhood 78
His early Acquirements 79
Goes to London 80
Returns to Glasgow 80
Appointed Instrument-maker to the University 81
Opens a Shop in Glasgow 81
His Friends and Patrons 81
Professor Robison's Remarks on Watt's personal Character 82
His industrious and studious Habits 82
His Attention first directed to Steam 83
Experiments on High-pressure Engine 83
Repairs an Atmospheric Model 84
Experimental Inquiry consequent on this 84
Its Results 84
Observes great Defects in the Atmospheric Engine 85
His first Attempt to improve it 85
His early Experiments on Steam 87
Discovery by Experiment of the Expansion which Water undergoes in Evaporation 90
Discovers the latent Heat of Steam 91
Informed by Dr. Black of the Theory of latent Heat 93
His Improvement not due to Black 93
CHAP. IV.
EXPOSITION OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES.
Construction of Thermometer 98
Method of graduating it 99
Freezing and boiling Points 99
Latent Heat of Water 101
Quantity of Heat necessary to convert Ice into Water, first noticed by Dr. Black 101
Examination of the analogous Effects produced by the continued Application of Heat to Water in the liquid State 102
Process of Boiling 104
Reconversion of Steam into Water 104
Conversion of Water into Steam 105
Latent Heat of Steam 107
Boiling Point varies 108
Different in different Places 109
Inquiry whether a Diminution of Pressure will produce a corresponding Effect on the boiling Point 112
Table showing the Temperature at which Water will boil under different Pressures of the Atmosphere 113
Mechanical Force of Steam 115
Facts to be observed in 117
CHAP. V.
FURTHER DISCOVERIES OF WATT.
Watt finds that Condensation in the Cylinder is incompatible with a due Economy of Fuel 119
Conceives the Notion of condensing out of the Cylinder 120
Discovers separate Condensation 121
Invents the Air Pump 123
Substitutes Steam Pressure for Atmospheric Pressure 123
Invents the Steam Case, or Jacket 124
His first Experiments to realise these Inventions 125
His experimental Apparatus 125
His experimental Models fitted up at Delft House, in Glasgow 128
Difficulties of bringing the improved Engines into Use 129
Watt first employed by Roebuck as a Civil Engineer 130
His Partnership with Roebuck 130
His first Patent 130
Experimental Engine at Kinneal 131
Abstract of the Act of Parliament for the Extension of his Patent 132
Description of his single-acting Steam Engine 133
CHAP. VI.
WATT'S ENGINES.
Correspondence of Watt with Smeaton 145
Failure of Condensation by Surface 146
Improvements in Construction of Piston 147
Method of Packing 148
Improvements in boring the Cylinder 149
Disadvantages of the new compared with the old Engines 150
Greatly increased Economy of Fuel 150
Economy of the Engine 151
Expedients to force the new Engines into Use 151
Correspondence of Boulton 153
Correspondence with Smeaton 155
Efficiency of Fuel in the new Engines 156
Discovery of the expansive Action of Steam 157
Watt states it in a Letter to Dr. Small 157
Its Principle explained 158
Mechanical Effects resulting from it 162
Computed Effect of cutting off Steam at different Portions of the Stroke 163
Produces a variable Power 163
Expedients for equalising the Power 164
Expansive Principle in Watt's Engines limited 165
Its more extensive Application in the Cornish Engines 165
CHAP. VII.
DOUBLE-ACTING ENGINE.
Common Steam 168
Superheated Steam 170
Laws of Dalton and Gay Lussac 171
Law of Mariotte 171
Relation between Temperature and Pressure of common Steam 171
Effects of the Expansion of common Steam 173
Mechanical Effects of Steam 173
Method of equalising the expansive Force 174
Hornblower's Engine 175
Woolf's Engine 176
Watt's Attempts to extend the Steam Engine to Manufactures 178
Papin's projected Applications of the Steam Engine 178
Savery's Application of the Engine to move Machinery 180
Jonathan Hull's Application to Water Wheels 180
Champion of Bristol applies the Atmospheric Engine to raise Water 181
Stewart's Application of the Engine to Mill-work 182
Wasbrough's Application of the Fly-wheel and Crank 183
Reasons why Watt's single-acting Steam Engine was not adapted to produce continuous uniform Motion of Rotation 184
Watt's Second Patent 186
Sun-and-Planet Wheels 187
Valves of double-acting Engine 189
CHAP. VIII.
DOUBLE-ACTING ENGINE.
Methods of connecting the Piston-rod and Beam in the double-acting Engine 193
Rack and Sector 194
Parallel Motion 195
Connection of Piston-rod and Beam 195
Connecting Rod and Crank 203
Fly-wheel 205
Throttle-valve 207
Governor 209
Construction and Operation of the double-acting Engine 216
Eccentric 225
Cocks and Valves 227
Single-clack Valves 227
Double-clack Valves 228
Conical Valves 228
Slide Valves 229
Murray's Slides 229
D Valves 230
Seaward's Slides 235
Single Cock 238
Two-way Cock 239
Four-way Cock 239
Pistons 242
Common hemp-packed Piston 242
Woolf's Piston 243
Metallic Pistons 244
Cartwright's Engine 245
Cartwright's Piston 247
Barton's Piston 248
CHAP. IX.
BOILERS AND FURNACES.
Analysis of Coal 252
Process of Combustion 253
Heat evolved in it 254
Form and Structure of Boiler 255
Waggon Boiler 255
Furnace 256
Method of feeding it 257
Combustion of Gas in Flues 260
Williams's Patent for Method of consuming unburned Gases 260
Construction of Grate and Ash-pit 261
Magnitude of heating Surface of Boiler 262
Steam-space and Water-space in Boiler 263
Position of Flues 264
Method of feeding Boiler 265
Method of indicating the Level of Water in Boiler 266
Level Gauges 266
Self-regulating Feeders 267
Steam Gauge 270
Barometer Gauge 272
Watt's Invention of the Indicator 274
Counter 278
Safety-valve 279
Fusible Plugs 280
Self-regulating Damper 281
Brunton's Self-regulating Furnace 283
Gross and useful Effect of an Engine 285
Power and Duty of Engines 287
Horse-power of Steam Engines 289
Evaporation proportional to Horse-power 290
Sources of Loss of Power 292
Absence of good practical Rules for Power 292
Common Rules followed by Engine-makers 292
Duty distinguished from Power 294
Duty of Boilers 294
Proportion of Stroke to Diameter of Cylinder 295
Duty of Engines 296
Cornish System of Inspection 297
Table showing the Improvement of Cornish Engines 298
Beneficial Effects of Cornish Inspection 299
Successive Improvements on which the increased Duty of Engines depends, traced by John Taylor in his "Records of Mining" 299
CHAP. X.
LIFE OF WATT.
Watt's Friends and Associates at Birmingham 302
His Invention of the Copying Press 302
Heating Apartments and Buildings by Steam 303
Watt's Machine for drying Linen 303
His Share in the Discovery of the Composition of Water 303
The Merit of this Discovery shared between Cavendish, Lavoisier, and Watt 305
Anecdote of Watt's Activity of Mind 309
His Introduction of the Use of Chlorine in Bleaching 310
One of the Founders of the Pneumatic Institution at Clifton 310
His first Marriage 311
Death of his first Wife 311
His second Marriage 311
Death of his younger Son 311
Extracts from his Letters 312
Character of Watt by Lord Brougham 313
Extract from Sir Walter Scott's "Monastery" on the Character of Watt 314
Sketch of the Life of Watt from the "Scotsman" by Lord Jeffrey 315
Occupation of his old Age 318
His Invention of Machine for copying Sculpture 318
His last Days 318
Monuments to his Memory 319
Inscription by Lord Brougham on the Pedestal of the Monument in Westminster Abbey 320
CHAP. XI.
LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES ON RAILWAYS.
High-pressure Engines 322
One of the earliest Forms of the Steam Engine 322
Description of Leupold's Engine 323
Non-condensing Engine of Messrs. Trevethick and Vivian 324
Construction of a Machine for moving Carriages on Railroads 328
Effects of Railway Transport 329
Moral and political Consequences of 334
History of the Locomotive Engine 337
Construction of Locomotive Engine by Blinkensop 337
Messrs. Chapman's Contrivance 337
Walking Engine 337
Mr. Stephenson's Engines at Killingworth 339
Liverpool and Manchester Railway 342
The Directors offer a Prize for the best Locomotive Engine 344
Experimental Trial 344
The "Rocket," "Sanspareil," and "Novelty" 344
Admirable Arrangement in the Rocket 345
Description of the "Sanspareil" 347
Description of the "Novelty" 349
The Superiority of the "Rocket" 350
Method of subdividing the Flue into Tubes 353
Progressive Improvement of Locomotive Engines 354
Dr. Lardner's Experiments in 1832 357
Adoption of Brass Tubes 360
Great Expense of Locomotive Power 361
Mr. Booth's Report 362
Detailed Description of the most improved Locomotive Engines 365
Substitution of Brass for Copper Tubes ascribed to Mr. Dixon 370
Power of Locomotive Engines 379
Position of the Eccentrics 379
Pressure of Steam in the Boiler 401
Dr. Lardner's Experiments in 1838 406
Resistance to Railway Trains 407
Dr. Lardner's Experiments on the Great Western Railway 408
Experiments on Resistance 409
Restrictions on Gradients 410
Compensating Effect of Gradients 412
Experiment with the "Hecla" 412
Disposition of Gradients should be uniform 415
Methods of surmounting steep Inclinations 415
CHAP. XII.
LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES ON TURNPIKE ROADS.
Railways and Stone Roads compared 420
Gurney's Steam Carriage 423
The Boiler of Gurney's Engine 423
His Method of cleansing Boilers 428
Convenience and Safety of Steam Carriages 432
Two Methods of applying Locomotive Engines upon common Roads 434
Horse Carriages compared with Steam 435
Extract from Mr. Farey's Evidence before the House of Commons 435
Hancock's Steam Carriage 436
How it differs from that of Mr. Gurney 437
Ogle's Locomotive Carriage 438
Dr. Church's Steam Engine 439
CHAP. XIII.
STEAM NAVIGATION.
Form and Arrangement of Marine Engines 441
Arrangement of the Engine-room 446
Marine Boilers 448
Effects of Sea Water in Boilers 450
Remedies for them 451
Blow-off Cocks 452
Indicators of Saltness 453
Seaward's Indicator 454
His Method of blowing out 454
Field's Brine Pumps 456
Tubular Condensers applied by Mr. Watt 457
Hall's Condensers 458
Substitution of Copper for Iron Boilers 460
Process of Stoking 462
Watt's Expedient of attaching Felt to the Boiler Surface 463
Means of economising Fuel 463
Number and Arrangement of Furnaces and Flues 463
Howard's Marine Engine 464
Application of the expansive Principle in Marine Engines 466
Recent Improvements of Messrs. Maudslay and Field 467
Humphrey's Marine Engine 470
Common Paddle-wheel 472
Feathering Paddles 474
Galloway's Patent for a Paddle-wheel with movable Paddles 476
Split Paddle 478
Proportion of Power to Tonnage 480
Improved Efficiency of Marine Engines 482
Iron Steam Vessels 483
Steam Navigation to India 484
CHAP. XIV.
AMERICAN STEAM NAVIGATION.
Steam Navigation first established in America 487
Circumstances which led to it 488
Attempts of Fitch and Rumsey to apply the single-acting Engine to the Propulsion of Vessels 489
Stevens of Hoboken commences Experiments in Steam Navigation 489
Experiments of Livingstone and Fulton 489
Fulton's first Boat 490
The Hudson navigated by Steam 491
Extension and Improvement of River Navigation 492
American Steamers 494
Difference between them and European Steamers 494
Steamers on the Hudson 494
American Paddle-wheels 495
Sea-going American Steamers 496
Speed attained by American Steamers 497
Lake Steamers 499
The Mississippi and its Tributaries 499
Steam-boats navigating it 500
Their Structure and Machinery 500
New Orleans Harbour 503
Steam Tugs 503
APPENDIX.
On the Relation between the Temperature, Pressure, and Density of Common Steam.
Empirical Formula of Biot, showing the Relation between the Pressure and Temperature 505
Empirical formula of
Southern 506
Tredgold 506
Mellet 506
De Pambour 506
MM. Dulong and Arago 506
Law of the Expansion of elastic Fluids, discovered by Dalton and Gay Lussac 506
Formula for the Relation between the Volumes and Temperatures 507
Law of Mariotte 507
Table of Pressures, Temperatures, Volumes, and Mechanical Effects of Steam 509
Empirical Formulæ for the Relation between the Volume of Water and that of the Steam produced by its Evaporation under given Pressures 511
Formula of Navier 511
Modified by De Pambour 511
On the Expansive Action of Steam.
Mechanical Effect produced during a given Extent of Expansion 511
Mechanical Effect produced during Evaporation and subsequent Expansion 512
Application to double-acting Engines 513
Formula for Pressure of Steam in Cylinders 514
Formula for total Mechanical Effect per Minute of Steam when cut off at any proposed Part of the Stroke 514
Formulæ exhibiting the Relation between the Resistance of the Load, the Resistances of the Engine, the Evaporation, the Speed of the Piston, and the Magnitude of the Cylinder 515
Formulæ showing the Relation between the Power of the Engine, the Evaporation, and the useful Load 516
Formulæ for the useful Effect and the Duty 517
Estimates of the several Sources of Resistances 518
Tables to facilitate the Computation of the Effects of Expansive Engines 519
Table of the Areas of Pistons 520
Examples of the Application of these Formulæ 521
INDEX.

The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Steam Engine Explained and Illustrated (Seventh Edition)

The Steam Engine Explained and Illustrated

CONTENTS.

The Steam Engine
Explained and Illustrated