Singular: N. mūniceps, G. mūnicipis, D. mūnicipī, Ac. mūnicipem, Ab. mūnicipe. Plural: N. mūnicipēs, G. mūnicipum, D. mūnicipibus, Ac. mūnicipēs, Ab. mūnicipibus.

480. Examples of stems in -b- or -p-, with nominative -s, genitive -bis or -pis, are:

-ebs, -ibis	caelebs, unmarried, adjective, the only stem in -b-.
——, -apis	dapis, G., F., feast, N. and D. S., and G. Pl. not used (430).
-eps, -ipis	adeps or adips, M., F., fat, no G. Pl; forceps, M., F., pincers; mūniceps, burgher. particeps, sharing, and prīnceps, first, adjectives.
-eps, -upis	auceps, fowler; manceps, contractor, mancupis or mancipis.
——, -ipis	stipis, G., F., small change, no N.
-ops, -opis	Ops, F., old Opis (Plaut.), goddess of power; opis, G., F., help, no N., D. once only, Pl. opēs, means (418).

II. STEMS IN A CONTINUOUS CONSONANT.

481. (1.) Stems in -l- and -n- are declined as follows:

Examples Stems	cōnsul, consul, cōnsul-, M.	leō, lion, leōn-, M.	imāgō, likeness, imāgin-, F.	nōmen, name, nōmin-, Ne.
Singular
Nom.	cōnsul	leō	imāgō	nōmen
Gen.	cōnsulis	leōnis	imāginis	nōminis
Dat.	cōnsulī	leōnī	imāginī	nōminī
Acc.	cōnsulem	leōnem	imāginem	nōmen
Abl.	cōnsule	leōne	imāgine	nōmine
Plural
Nom.	cōnsulēs	leōnēs	imāginēs	nōmina
Gen.	cōnsulum	leōnum	imāginum	nōminum
Dat.	cōnsulibus	leōnibus	imāginibus	nōminibus
Acc.	cōnsulēs	leōnēs	imāginēs	nōmina
Abl.	cōnsulibus	leōnibus	imāginibus	nōminibus

482. Examples of stems in -l-, with nominative -l, genitive -lis, are:

-āl, -alis	sāl, M., salt, sometimes Ne. in the singular; no G. Pl. (430).
-el, -ellis	fel (171, 1), Ne., gall; mel, Ne., honey; plural only fella, mella.
-il, -ilis	mūgil, M., mullet; pūgil, M., boxer; vigil, M., watchman.
-ōl, -ōlis	sōl, M., sun, no G. Pl. (430).
-ul, -ulis	cōnsul, consul; praesul, head dancer; exsul, exile.

483. (a.) Examples of stems in -n-, with nominative -en, genitive -inis, are:

flāmen, M., priest; pecten, M., comb; tībīcen, M., piper; tubicen, M., trumpeter; sanguen, Ne., blood. Many neuters in -men (224): as, certāmen, contest.

484. (b.) Examples of stems in -n-, with nominative -ō, genitive -ōnis, are:

Many masculine concretes: as, pugiō, dagger; words of the agent (211): as, praedō, robber; and family names: as, Cicerō. Feminine abstracts in -iō (227), and many in -tiō or -siō (228): as, opīniō, notion; cōgitātiō, thought.

485. (c.) Examples of stems in -n-, with nominative -ō, genitive -inis, are:

Masculines: Apollō; cardō, hinge; ōrdō, rank; turbō, whirlwind. homo, M., F., human being; nēmō, nobody; for G. and Ab., nūllī̆us and nūllō are generally used; margō, M., F., brink. Feminines: grandō, hail; harundō, reed; hirundō, swallow; hirūdō, leech; testūdō, tortoise; virgō, maiden. Many in -dō, -dinis (225), -gō, -ginis (226), and -tūdō, -tūdinis (264): as, cupīdō, also M., desire; imāgō, likeness; sōlitūdō, loneliness.

486. sanguī̆s, M., blood, stem sanguin-, takes -s in the nominative (171, 4). canis, M., F., dog, stem can-, and īuvenis, M., F., young person, stem iuven-, have the nominative formed like that of -i- stems. For senex, old man, see 500.

487. (2.) Stems in -r- and -s- are declined as follows:

Examples Stems	pater, father, patr-, M.	dolor, pain, dolōr-, M.	flōs, flower, flōr-, M.	genus, race, gener-, Ne.
Singular
Nom.	pater	dolor	flōs	genus
Gen.	patris	dolōris	flōris	generis
Dat.	patrī	dolōrī	flōrī	generī
Acc.	patrem	dolōrem	flōrem	genus
Abl.	patre	dolōre	flōre	genere
Plural
Nom.	patrēs	dolōrēs	flōrēs	genera
Gen.	patrum	dolōrum	flōrum	generum
Dat.	patribus	dolōribus	flōribus	generibus
Acc.	patrēs	dolōrēs	flōrēs	genera
Abl.	patribus	dolōribus	flōribus	generibus

488. Many stems in -r- ended originally in -s-, which became -r- between two vowels, and in some words in the nominative also (154): as, flōs, M., flower, G. *flōsis, flōris; honōs, M., honour, G. honōris, N. honor.

489. (a.) Examples of stems in -r-, with nominative -r, genitive -ris, are:

-ar, -aris	baccar, Ne., a plant; iūbar, Ne., rarely M., bright sky, no Pl.
-ār, -aris	lār, M., household god; G. Pl. larum; two or three times larium.
-ār, -arris	fār (171, 1), Ne., spelt; Pl. only N. and Ac. farra.
-er, -eris	Masculines: acipēnser, sturgeon; agger, mound; ānser, rarely F., goose; asser, pole; carcer, jail; later, brick; mulier, F., woman; passer, sparrow; vōmer, ploughshare. Neuters: cadāver, corpse; tūber, swelling; ūber, breast; verberis, G., lash, no N., generally Pl.; acer, maple, and some other plant names: see 573. pauper, poor, adjective.
-ter, -tris	accipiter, M., hawk; frāter, M., brother; māter, F., mother; pater, M., father.
-ēr, -ēris	vēr, Ne.; no Pl.
-or, -oris	aequor, Ne., sea; marmor, Ne., marble; arbor, F., tree.
-or, -ōris	olor, M., swan; soror, F., sister; uxor, F., wife. Many masculines in -or for -ōs (237): as, odor, smell; and in -tor, -tōris (205): as, amātor, lover. Also gender comparatives of adjectives: as, trīstior (346), M., F., sadder.
-ur, -oris	Neuters: ebur, ivory; Pl. only ebora; rōbur, heart of oak; Pl. rōbora common, rōborum and rōboribus twice each. Also femur, thigh, femoris or feminis, and iecur, liver, iecoris, iecineris, or iocineris.
-ur, -uris	augur, M., F., augur; furfur, M., bran; turtur, M., F., turtle-dove; voltur or vultur, M., vulture. Neuters: fulgur, lightning; guttur, rarely M., throat; murmur, murmur; sulpur, sulphur. cicur, tame, adjective.
-ūr, -ūris	fūr, M., thief.

490. volucris, F., bird, stem volucr-, has its nominative formed like that of -i- stems.

491. (b.) Examples of stems in -s-, or -r- for -s-, with nominative -s, genitive -ris, are:

-aes, -aeris	aes, Ne., copper, bronze; in the Pl. only aera and aerum are usual.
-ēs, -eris	Cerēs. pūbēs, mangrown; impūbēs, immature, adjectives; for the last more commonly impūbis, like brevis (630).
-is, -eris	cinis, M., ashes; cucumis, M., cucumber, also with -i- stem; pulvis, M., dust; vōmis, M., ploughshare.
-ōs, -oris	arbōs, F., tree.
-ōs, -ōris	Masculines: flōs, flower; mōs, custom; rōs, dew, no G. Pl. (430); lepōs, grace; honōs or honor, honour, and some old Latin words for later -or: as, odōs or odor, smell (489). ōs, Ne., mouth, face, no G. Pl. (430).
-us, -eris	Neuters: acus, husk; foedus, treaty; fūnus, funeral; genus, race; glŏ̄mus (134), clew; holus, green stuff; latus, side; mūnus, gift; onus, burden; opus, work; pondus, weight; raudus or rūdus, piece of copper; scelus, crime; sīdus, constellation; ulcus, sore; vellus, fleece; vīscus, bowel, usually plural; volnus or vulnus, wound. Also Venus, F., and vetus, old, adjective.
-us, -oris	Neuters: corpus, body; decus, grace; dēdecus, disgrace; facinus, deed; faenus, interest; frīgus, cold; lītus, shore; nemus, grove; pectus, breast; pecus, flock; penus, store; pignus, pledge; stercus, dung; tempus, time; tergus, back. Also lepus, M., hare.
-us, -ōris	Neuter comparatives of adjectives: as, trīstius (346), sadder.
-ūs, -ūris	Neuters: crūs, leg; iūs, right, Pl. iūra, G. Pl. twice only (Plaut.; Cato), no D. or Ab. Pl.; iūs, broth, pūs, pus, rūs, country, tūs, frankincense, Pl. only N. and Ac. iūra, &c. tellūs, F., earth.

492. vās, Ne., vessel, utensil, retains the s between two vowels: G. vāsis, D. vāsī, Ab. vāse, plural N. and Ac. vāsa; the G. vāsōrum, and D. and Ab. vāsis, are formed from an -o- stem, vāso- (401). mēnsis, M., month, mēnsis, has its nominative formed like that of -i- stems; G. Pl. mēnsum, sometimes mēnsuum or mēnsium. os (171, 1) Ne., bone, ossis, has no G. Pl. in good writers (430): ossium late.

493. The two neuters vīrus, gall, poison, and volgus or vulgus, the crowd, have -o- stems, except in the nominative and accusative (401), and no plural: thus, N. and Ac. volgus, G. volgī, D. and Ab. volgō. A masculine accusative volgum is sometimes found. The Greek neuter pelagus, the deep, has also G. pelagī, D. and Ab. pelagō, Pl. N. and Ac. pelagē (508).

III. STEMS IN -u- OR -v-.

494. Four substantives with stems in -ū- or -v-, grūs, F., crane, gruis; sūs, M., F., sow, swine, suis; bōs, M., F., ox, cow, bovis; and nix, F., snow, nivis, follow the consonant declension; also the genitive Iovis, and the other oblique cases of Iuppiter (500). But sūs has in the plural dative and ablative suibus, sūbus, or subus; bōs has in the plural genitive boum or bovum, rarely bovom (107, c), and in the dative and ablative bōbus, or oftener būbus; nix has no genitive plural in good writers (430): nivium late, once nivum.

SINGULAR CASES.

495. (1.) The nominative singular of gender stems in a mute is formed by adding -s to the stem (422): as,

rēg-, king, N. rēx (164, 1); duc-, leader, N. dux (135, 1); custōd-, guard, N. custōs (171, 5); aetāt-, age, N. aetās (171, 5); caelib-, unmarried, N. caelebs (54); mūnicip-, burgher, N. mūniceps. hiem-, winter, the only stem in -m-, N. hiemps (167) or hiems, also takes -s.

496. (2.) Stems in a continuous consonant, -l-, -n-, -r-, or -s-, and neuters have no nominative suffix (422, 423): as,

cōnsul-, consul, N. cōnsul; flāmin-, special priest, N. flāmen; agger-, mound, N. agger; iūr- for iūs-, right, N. iūs.

For cor, heart, see 476; lacte, lac, milk, 478; sanguī̆s, blood, 486; -s in neuter adjectives, 612.

497. (a.) Stems in -ōn- drop -n- in the nominative; stems in -in- for -on- drop -n-, and end in -ō: as,

leōn-, lion, N. leō; imāgin- for imāgon-, likeness, N. imāgō.

498. (b.) Stems of one syllable in -r- for -s- usually retain -s in the nominative: as, flōr- for flōs-, M., flower, N. flōs; iūr- for iūs-, Ne., right, N. iūs. Some of more than one syllable also retain -s: see 491; but in others -s is changed to -r, and in masculines a preceding ō is shortened: as, odōs, smell, odor. lepōs, grace, retains -ōs.

499. (c.) Four stems in -er- for -is- have the nominative singular in -is: cinis, ashes, cineris; cucumis, cucumber, cucumeris or cucumis; pulvī̆s, dust, pulveris; and vōmis, oftener vōmer, ploughshare, vōmeris.

500. The following have the nominative singular formed from a different stem from that of the other cases (401):

iter, journey, itineris, stems iter-, itiner-; Iuppiter (389) Iovis; supellēx, furniture, supellēctilis (545); senex, old man, man of forty or more, senis, stems senec-, sen-. For sēdēs, seat, see 476; vātēs, bard, 478. canis, dog, N. also canēs (Plaut. Enn., Lucil.), iuvenis, young or middle-aged person (486), volucris, bird (490), and mēnsis, month (492), have their nominatives formed like those of -i- stems.

501. An old dative in -ē is sometimes retained in set phrases (507): as, aerē, money; iūrē, right. See 98.

502. Substantives have rarely an ablative in -ī or -ei like -i- stems: as, capitī (Catull.), head, for capite; dōtei (Plaut.), dowry, for dōte. Substantives used as adjectives have sometimes -ī: as artificī manū, with artist hand; but often -e: as, ālite lāpsū, with winged glide. For -ē in old Latin there is no certain evidence.

503. Adjectives in the comparative degree have sometimes an ablative in -ī: as, meliōrī, better, for meliōre. Adjectives ‘of one ending’ with consonant stems (624) have always -e, except vetus, old, which has sometimes veterī.

504. Town names and a few appellatives have a locative case in -ī: as, Karthāginī, at Carthage; rūrī, a-field, in the country.

PLURAL CASES.

505. The nominative and accusative plural masculine and feminine have rarely -īs, like stems in -i-: as sacerdōtīs, priests; meliōrīs, better. For -ā in neuters in old Latin, see 130, 2.

506. The genitive plural of stems in -tāt- (262) is sometimes -ium, like that of -ī- stems: as, cīvitātium, communities; voluptātium, pleasures (Cic.); but chiefly in or after the Augustan age. mēnsis, month, has mēnsum, but often mēnsuum, sometimes mēnsium. āles, bird, has sometimes ālituum in hexameter verse. For the dative and ablative -būs, see 2505.

507. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows:

N. MVNICIPES; -ō for -ōs (66): MAIO, i.e. maiōs or maior. G. -es, as early as 218 B.C.: SALVTES; -us, from 186 to 100 B.C.: NOMINVS; -u (66): CAESARV. D. -ei: VIRTVTEI, soon after 290 B.C.; HEREDEI, 45 B.C.; -ē, disappeared sooner than -ei except in set phrases (501), but is equally old: IVNONE; IOVRE. Ac. -e (61): APICE. Ab. -īd (426): CONVENTIONID, i.e. cōntiōne; -ei: VIRTVTEI; -ī: HEREDI. Plural: N. -īs: IOVDICIS. G. -om: POVMILIONOM; -ium: MVNICIPIVM. D. -ebus: TEMPESTATEBVS. Ac. -īs: MVNICIPIS.

GREEK NOUNS.

508. Greek appellatives of the consonant declension occasionally retain Greek case endings: as, lampas, torch, G. lampados, Ac. lampada. Plural: N. lampades, Ac. lampadas. āēr, air, has usually the accusative āera, and aethēr, upper air, always has aethera. In the plural nominative and accusative, cētus, swimming monster, melos, strain of music, and pelagus (493), the deep, have -ē: as, cētē. Genitive -ōn, rare: as, epigrammatōn, epigrams. Dative and ablative -matīs from words in -ma, -matis: as, poēmatīs, poems (401).

509. Greek proper names of the consonant declension are usually declined like Latin ones in old Latin and prose. From Vergil and Propertius on, Greek case endings grow more and more frequent, especially in poetry; they are best learned for every name from the dictionary; the commonest forms are:

Genitive -os: as, Pān, Pānos; -ūs, with nominative -ō: as, Mantō, Mantūs. Dative -i, rare: as, Mīnōidi. Accusative -a, common with names of persons in poetry, not in prose, more common with those of places, and even in prose: as, Acheronta; always Pāna; -ō, with feminines in -ō, -ūs: as, Dīdō. Vocative: Pallās, Pallā; in old Latin the nominative is commonly used instead of the vocative. Plural: Nominative -es: as, Arcades. Dative -sin, rare: as, Lēmniasin. Accusative -as, very common: as, Lelegas; in prose, Macedonas; also in words not Greek: as, Allobrogas (Caes.).

510. Names in -eus, like Orpheus, are usually declined like -o- stems (449). They have less frequently Greek forms: as, G. Orpheos, D. Orphei or Orphī, Ac. Orphea. Accusative rarely -ēa: as, Ī̆lonēa.

511. Some names in -ēs have the genitive in -is or -ī and the accusative in -em or -ēn (401): as, Sōcratēs, G. Sōcratis or Sōcratī, Ac. usually Sōcratem, also Sōcratēn. Achillēs and Ulixēs have in the genitive -eī, -e͡i, or -ī. Names in -clēs have rarely the accusative -clea: as, Periclea.

512. Some names in -is have forms either from a stem in -id-, or from one in -i-: as, Paris, G. Paridis, D. Paridī, Ac. Paridem, Parim or Parin, V. Pari.

STEMS IN -i- AND MIXED STEMS.

The Third Declension.

Genitive singular -is, genitive plural -i-um.

513. Stems in -i- include both substantives and adjectives, gender words and neuters.

For the gender of substantives, see 570.

514. The nominative of gender stems in -i- ends usually in -s (or -x), sometimes in -l or -r; that of neuter substantives has no suffix, and ends usually in -e, sometimes in -l or -r.

515. Most stems in -i- have as many syllables in the nominative as in the genitive.

Such words are called Parisyllabic words, or Parisyllables: as, nominative cīvis, citizen, two syllables; genitive cīvis, of a citizen, also two syllables.

516. Stems in -i- are declined in the main like consonant stems, but have -im in the accusative of some substantives, and -ī in the ablative of adjectives, of some gender substantives, and of neuters; in the plural they have -ium in the genitive, -īs often in the accusative of gender words, and -ia in the nominative and accusative neuter.

I. PARISYLLABLES.

517. (1.) Parisyllabic gender stems in -i- with the nominative in -is are declined as follows:

Examples Stems	tussis, cough, tussi-, F.	turris, tower, turri-, F.	amnis, river, amni-, M.	hostis, enemy, hosti-, M., F.	Stem and case endings
Singular
Nom.	tussis	turris	amnis	hostis	-is
Gen.	tussis	turris	amnis	hostis	-is
Dat.	tussī	turrī	amnī	hostī	-ī
Acc.	tussim	turrim, -em	amnem	hostem	-im, -em
Abl.	tussī	turrī, -e	amne, -ī	hoste	-ī, -e
Plural
Nom.	tussēs	turrēs	amnēs	hostēs	-ēs
Gen.		turrium	amnium	hostium	-ium
Dat.		turribus	amnibus	hostibus	-ibus
Acc.	tussīs, -ēs	turrīs, -ēs	amnīs, -ēs	hostīs, -ēs	-īs, -ēs
Abl.		turribus	amnibus	hostibus	-ibus

518. (a.) Like the singular of tussis are declined parisyllabic names of rivers and places, like Tiberis, Hispalis. Also cucumis, M., cucumber (but see 491), and the defectives sitis, F., thirst, Ac. sitim, Ab. sitī, no plural; and vīs, F., power, Ac. vim, Ab. vī. Plural (401): N. vīrēs, G. vīrium, D. and Ab. vīribus, Ac. vīrīs or vīrēs. (The D. vī is only found twice; a N. and Ac. Pl. vīs is very rare.)

519. (b.) The following feminines are declined like turris, with -im or -em in the accusative, and -ī or -e in the ablative:

So also in the oblique cases, Liger, the Liger. Arar, the Arar, has in the accusative -im, in the ablative -e or -ī.

520. secūris, axe, messis, crop, and restis, rope, also have -im or -em in the accusative, but only secūrī, messe, and reste in the ablative. canālis, conduit, has only -em in the accusative, and only -ī in the ablative.

521. (c.) The following are declined like amnis, with -em in the accusative, and -ī or -e in the ablative: