It means—one should ever recite the six names of the Sun, Aditya, Bhāskar, Bhānu, Ravi, Surya, Divākar, which destroy sin.

The sun is also worshipped on the thirteenth day after the death of a person, when arghyas are offered, and two earthen pots, containing a handful of raw khichedi—rice and pulse—and covered with yellow pieces of cotton are placed outside the house. This ceremony is called gadāso bharvo.118

Rajahs of the solar race always worship the rising sun. They also keep a golden image of the sun in their palaces, and engage learned Brahmans to recite verses in his honour. On Sundays they take only one meal and that of simple rice (for white food is most acceptable to the sun).119

Circumambulations round images and other holy objects are considered meritorious and to cause the destruction of sin.120 The subject has been dwelt on at length in the Dharma-sindhu-grantha, Vratarāja, and Shodashopachāra among the Dharma-Shāstras of the Hindus.121

The object round which turns are taken is either the image of a god, such as of Ganpati, Mahādev or Vishnu122 or the portrait of a guru, or his footmarks engraved or impressed upon some substance, or the agni-kunda (the fire-pit),123 or the holy cow124, or some sacred tree or plant, such as the Vad (banyan tree), the Pipal (ficus religiosa),125 the Shami (prosopis spicegera), the Amba (mango tree), the Asopalava tree (Polyalthea longifolia),126 or the Tulsi (sweet basil) plant.

It is said to have been a custom of the Brahmans in ancient times to complete their daily rites before sunrise every morning, and then to take turns round temples and holy objects. The practice is much less common now than formerly.127 Still, visitors to a temple or an idol, usually are careful to go round it a few times at least (generally five or seven). The usual procedure at such a time is to strike gongs or ring bells after the turns, to cast a glance at the shikhar or the pinnacle of the temple, and then to return.128

Women observing the chāturmās-vrat, or the monsoon vow, lasting from the eleventh day of the bright half of Ashādh (the ninth month) to the eleventh day of the bright half of Kārtik (the first month) first worship the object, round which they wish to take turns, with panchāmrit (a mixture of milk, curds, sugar, ghi and honey). The number of turns may be either 5, 7, 21 or 108. At each turn they keep entwining a fine cotton thread and place a pendā129 or a bantāsā130 or a betel-leaf or an almond, a cocoanut, a fig or some other fruit before the image or the object walked round. These offerings are claimed by the priest who superintends the ceremony.131 When a sacred tree is circumambulated, water is poured out at the foot of the tree at each turn.132

During the month of Shrāvan (the tenth month) and during the Purushottama (or the intercalatory) month, men and women observe a number of vows, in respect of which, every morning and evening, they take turns round holy images and objects.133

People observing the chāturmās-vrat (or monsoon vow), called Tulsi-vivāha (marriage of Tulsi), worship that plant and take turns round it on every eleventh day of both the bright and the dark halves of each of the monsoon months.133 The gautrat-vrat (gau = cow) necessitates perambulations round a cow, and the Vat-Sāvitri-vrat round the Vad or banyan tree. The banyan tree is also circumambulated on the Kapilashashthi day (the sixth day of the bright half of Mārgashīrsha, the second month) and on the Amāvāsyā or the last day of Bhādrapada (the eleventh month).134

Women who are anxious to prolong the lives of their husbands take turns round the Tulsi plant or the banyan tree. At each turn they wind a fine cotton thread. At the end of the last turn, they throw red lac and rice over the tree and place a betelnut and a pice or a half-anna piece before it.135

The Shāstras authorise four pradakshinās (or perambulations) for Vishnu, three for the goddesses, and a half (or one and a half)136 for Shiva.137 But the usual number of pradakshinās is either 5, 7, 21 or 108. In taking turns round the image of Vishnu, one must take care to keep one’s right side towards the image, while in the case of Shiva, one must not cross the jalādhari138 or the small passage for conducting water poured over the Shiva-linga.137

Sometimes in pradakshinās the votary repeats the name of the deity round which the turns are taken while the priest recites the names of the gods in Shlokas.139 Sometimes the following verse is repeated.140

‘I am sinful, the doer of sin, a sinful soul and am born of sin. O lotus-eyed One! protect me and take away all sins from me. Whatever sins I may have committed now as well as in my former births, may every one of them perish at each footstep of my pradakshinā.’

The recitation and the turns are supposed to free the soul from the pherā of lakh-choryasi141. Alms are given many times to the poor after pradakshinās.142

The reason why pradakshinās are taken during the day is that they have to be taken in the presence of the sun, the great everlasting witness of all human actions.143

As all seeds and vegetation receive their nourishment from solar and lunar rays, the latter are believed in the same way to help embryonic development.144

The heat of the sun causes the trees and plants to give forth new sprouts, and therefore he is called ‘Savita’ or Producer.145 Solar and lunar rays are also believed to facilitate and expedite delivery.146 The medical science of the Hindus declares the Amāvāsya (new-moon day) and Pūrnima (full-moon day) days—on both of which days the influence of the sun and the moon is most powerful—to be so critical for child-bearing women as to cause, at times, premature delivery.147 Hence, before delivery, women are made to take turns in the sunlight and also in moonlight, in order to invigorate the fœtus, thus securing that their delivery may be easy. [The assistance rendered by solar rays in facilitating the delivery is said to impart a hot temperament to the child so born, and that by the lunar rays a cool one.]148 After delivery, a woman should glance at the sun with her hands clasped, and should offer rice and red flowers to him.149 Sitting in the sun after delivery is considered beneficial to women enfeebled by the effort.150 It is a cure for the paleness due to exhaustion,151 and infuses new vigour.152

The Bhils believe that the exposure of a new-born child to the sun confers upon the child immunity from injury by cold and heat.153

The practice of making recently delivered women sit in the sun does not seem to be widespread, nor does it prevail in Kathiawar. In Kathiawar, on the contrary, women are kept secluded from sunlight in a dark room at the time of child-birth, and are warmed by artificial means.154 On the other hand, it is customary in many places to bring a woman into the sunlight after a certain period has elapsed since her delivery. The duration of this period varies from four days to a month and a quarter. Sometimes a woman is not allowed to see sunlight after child-birth until she presents the child to the sun with certain ceremonies, either on the fourth or the sixth day from the date of her delivery.155

A ceremony called the Shashthi-Karma is performed on the sixth day after the birth of a child, and the Nāmkaran ceremony—the ceremony of giving a name—on the twelfth day. The mother of the child is sometimes not allowed to see the sun before the completion of these ceremonies.156 Occasionally, on the eleventh day after child-birth, the mother is made to take a bath in the sun.157

Exactly a month and a quarter from the date of delivery a woman is taken to a neighbouring stream to offer prayers to the sun and to fetch water thence in an earthen vessel. This ceremony is known as Zarmāzaryan.158 Seven small betel-nuts are used in the ceremony. They are carried by the mother, and distributed by her to barren women, who believe that, by eating the nuts from her hand, they are likely to conceive.159

In difficult labour cases, chakrāvā water is sometimes given to women. The chakrāvā is a figure of seven cross lines drawn on a bell-metal dish, over which the finest white dust has been spread. This figure is shown to the woman in labour: water is then poured into the dish and offered her to drink.160 The figure is said to be a representation of Chitrangad.161 It is also believed to be connected with a story in the Mahābhāarata.162 Subhadrā, the sister of god Krishna and the wife of Arjuna, one of the five Pāndavas, conceived a demon, an enemy of Krishna. The demon would not leave the womb of Subhadrā even twelve months after the date of her conception, and began to harass the mother. Krishna, the incarnation of god, knowing of the demon’s presence and the cause of his delay, took pity on the afflicted condition of his sister and read chakrāvā, (Chakravyūha) a book consisting of seven chapters and explaining the method of conquering a labyrinthine fort with seven cross-lined forts. Krishna completed six chapters, and promised to teach the demon the seventh, provided he came out. The demon ceased troubling Subhadrā and emerged from the womb. He was called Abhimanyu. Krishna never read the seventh chapter for then Abhimanyu would have been invincible and able to take his life. This ignorance of the seventh chapter cost Abhimanyu his life on the field of Kuru-kshetra in conquering the seven cross-lined labyrinthine forts. As the art of conquering a labyrinthine fort when taught to a demon in the womb facilitated the delivery of Subhadrā, a belief spread that drinking in the figure of the seven cross-lined labyrinthine fort would facilitate the delivery of all women who had difficulties in child-birth.162

The figure Swastika (literally auspicious), drawn as shown below, is an auspicious sign, and is believed to be a mark of good luck and a source of blessings. It is one of the sixteen line-marks on the sole of the lotus-like feet of the god Ishwar, the Creator of the Universe.163 The fame of the good effects of the Swastika figure is said to have been first diffused throughout society by Nārad-Muni, as instructed by the god Brahma.164

Various conjectures have been made concerning the origin of this figure. The following explanation is found in a work named Siddhāntsar. The Eternal Sat or Essence, that has neither beginning nor end nor any maker, exhibits all the religious principles in a chakra or a wheel-form. This round shape has no circumference; but any point in it is a centre; which being specified, the explanation of the whole universe in a circle is easy. Thus the figure ☉ indicates the creation of the universe from Sat or Essence. The centre with the circumference is the womb, the place of creation of the universe. The centre then expanding into a line, the diameter thus formed represents the male principle, linga-rūp, that is the producer, through the medium of activity in the great womb or mahā-yoni. When the line assumes the form of a cross, it explains the creation of the universe by an unprecedented combination of the two distinct natures, animate and inanimate. The circumference being removed, the remaining cross represents the creation of the world. The Swastika, or Sathia, as it is sometimes called, in its winged form (卍) suggests the possession of creative powers by the opposite natures, animate and inanimate.165

Another theory is that an image of the eight-leaved lotus, springing from the navel of Vishnu, one of the Hindu Trinity, was formerly drawn on auspicious occasions as a sign of good luck. The exact imitation of the original being difficult, the latter assumed a variety of forms, one of which is the Swastika.166

Some people see an image of the god Ganpati in the figure. That god being the master and protector of all auspicious ceremonies has to be invoked on all such occasions. The incapacity of the devotees to draw a faithful picture of Ganpati gave rise to a number of forms which came to be known by the name of Swastika.167

There are more ways than one of drawing the Swastika, as shown below, but the original form was of the shape of a cross. The first consonant of the Gujarati alphabet, ka, now drawn thus ક, was also originally drawn in the form of a cross (+). Some persons therefore suppose that the Swastika may be nothing more than the letter ક (ka), written in the old style and standing for the word kalyān or welfare.168

Though the Swastika is widely regarded as the symbol of the sun, some people ascribe the figure to different deities, viz., to Agni,169 to Ganpati,170 to Laxmi,171 to Shiva,172 besides the sun. It is also said to represent Swasti, the daughter of Brahma, who received the boon from her father of being worshipped on all auspicious occasions.173 Most persons, however, regard the Swastika as the symbol of the sun. It is said that particular figures are prescribed as suitable for the installation of particular deities: a triangle for one, a square for another, a pentagon for a third, and the Swastika for the sun.174 The Swastika is worshipped in the Ratnagiri district, and regarded as the symbol as well as the seat of the Sun-god.175 The people of the Thana district believe the Swastika to be the central point of the helmet of the sun; and a vow, called the Swastika-vrat, is observed by women in its honour. The woman draws a figure of the Swastika and worships it daily during the Chāturmās (the four months of the rainy season), at the expiration of which she presents a Brahman with a golden or silver plate with the Swastika drawn upon it.176

A number of other ideas are prevalent about the significance of the Swastika. Some persons believe that it indicates the four directions;177 some think that it represents the four mārgas—courses or objects of human desires—viz., (1) Dharma, religion; (2) Artha, wealth; (3) Kām, love; (4) Moksha, salvation.178 Some again take it to be an image of the ladder leading to the heavens.179 Others suppose it to be a representation of the terrestrial globe, and the four piles of corn placed in the figure, as shown below (p. 16) represent the four mountains, Udayāchala, Astāchal, Meru and Mandārāchala.180 The Swastika is also believed to be the foundation-stone of the universe.181

The Swastika is much in favour with the gods as a seat or couch, and as soon as it is drawn it is immediately occupied by some deity.182 It is customary therefore to draw the Swastika on most auspicious and festive occasions, such as marriage and thread ceremonies, the first pregnancy ceremonies and the Divali holidays.183 In the Konkan the Swastika is always drawn on the Antarpāt, or the piece of cloth which is held between the bride and the bridegroom at the time of a Hindu wedding.184 And at the time of the Punyāha-wāchan, a ceremony which precedes a Hindu wedding, the figure is drawn in rice and is worshipped.184 Throughout the Chāturmās some persons paint the auspicious Swastikas, either on their thresholds or at their doors, every morning.185

On the sixth day from the date of a child’s birth, a piece of cloth is marked with a Swastika in red lac, the cloth is stretched on a bedstead and the child is placed upon it.186 An account of this ceremony is to be found in the treatises Jayantishastra, Jātakarma, and Janakālaya.186

Before joining the village-school, little boys are made to worship Saraswati, the goddess of learning, after having installed her on a Swastika, in order that the acquisition of learning may be facilitated.187

A Brahman host, inviting a party of brother-Brahmans to dinner, marks the figure one (૧) against the names of those who are eligible for dakshinā, and a Swastika against the names of those who are not eligible. These latter are the yajamāns or patrons of the inviting Brahman, who is himself their pūjya, i.e., deserving to be worshipped by them. A bindu or dot, in place of the Swastika, is considered inauspicious.188

The Swastika is used in calculating the number of days taken in pilgrimage by one’s relations, one figure being painted on the wall each day from the date of separation.188

It is said that the Swastika when drawn on a wall is the representation of Jogmāya. Jogmāya is a Natural Power, bringing about the union of two separated beings.189

The Jains paint the Swastika in the way noted below and explain the figure in the following manner:—The four projectors indicate four kinds of souls: viz., (1) Manushya or human, (2) Tiryach or of lower animals, (3) Deva or divine, (4) Naraki or hellish. The three circular marks denote the three Ratnas or jewels, viz., (1) Jnān or knowledge, (2) Darshana or faith, (3) Charita or good conduct; and the semi-circular curve, at the top of the three circles, indicates salvation.190

Every Jain devotee, while visiting the images of his gods, draws a Sathia (Swastika)191 before them and places a valuable object over it. The sign is held so sacred that a Jain woman has it embroidered on the reticule or kothali in which she carries rice to holy places.192

‘I am the very light of the sun and the moon,’ observes Lord Krishna in his dialogue with Arjuna,193 and the moon also receives divine honours like the sun. Moon-worship secures wealth, augments progeny, and betters the condition of milch-cattle.194 The suitable days for such worship are the second and the fourth days of the bright half of every month (Dwitīya or Bīj and Chaturthi or Choth, respectively) and every full-moon day (Purnima or Punema). On either of these days the devotees of Chandra (the moon) fast for the whole of the day and take their food only after the moon has risen and after they have seen and worshipped her.195 Some dainty dish such as kansār,196 or plantains and puris,197 is specially cooked for the occasion.

A sight of the moon on the second day of the bright half of every month is considered auspicious. After seeing the moon on this day some people also look at silver and gold coins for luck.198 The belief in the value of this practice is so strong that, immediately after seeing the moon, people refrain from beholding any other object. Their idea is that silver, which looks as bright as the moon, will be obtained in abundance if they look at a silver piece immediately after seeing the moon.199 Moon worship on this day is also supposed to guarantee the safety of persons at sea.200 In the south, milk and sugar is offered to the moon after the usual worship, and learned Brahmans are invited to partake of it. What remains after satisfying the Brahmans is divided among the community.199 On this day, those who keep cattle do not churn whey nor curd milk nor sell it, but consume the whole supply in feasts to friends and neighbours.201 The Ahirs and Rabaris especially are very particular about the use of milk in feasts only: for they believe that their cattle are thereby preserved in good condition.202

The fourth day of the dark half of every month is the day for the observance of the chaturthi-vrat (or choth-vrat). This vrat is observed in honour of the god Ganpati and by men only. The devotees fast on this day, bathe at night after seeing the moon, light a ghi lamp, and offer prayers to the moon. They also recite a pāth containing verses in honour of Ganpati, and, after worshipping that god, take their food consisting of some specially prepared dish. This vrat is said to fulfil the dreams of the devotees.203

The day for the chaturthi-vrat in the month of Bhādrapad (the 11th month of the Gujarati Hindus) is the fourth day of the bright half instead of the fourth day of the dark half,204 and on this day (Ganesh Chaturthi205) the moon is not worshipped. The very sight of her is regarded as ominous, and is purposely avoided.206 The story is that once upon a time the gods went out for a ride in their respective conveyances. It so happened that the god Ganpati fell off his usual charger, the rat, and this awkward mishap drew a smile from Chandra (the moon). Ganpati, not relishing the joke, became angry and cursed Chandra saying that no mortal would care to see his face on that day (which happened to be the fourth day of the bright half of Bhādrapad). If any one happens to see the moon even unwittingly on this day, he may expect trouble very soon.207 There is one way, however, out of the difficulty, and that is to throw stones on the houses of neighbours. When the neighbours utter abuse in return, the abuse atones for the sin of having looked at the moon on the forbidden night. The day is therefore called (in Gujarat) Dagad-choth, i.e., the Choth of stones.208

On the fourth day of the dark half of Phālgun (the 5th month of Gujarati Hindus) some villagers fast for the whole of the day and remain standing from sunset till the moon rises. They break their fast after seeing the moon. The day is, therefore, called ubhi (i.e., standing) choth.209

Virgins sometimes observe a vow on Poshi-Punema or the full-moon day of Pausha (the 3rd month of the Gujarati Hindus). On this day a virgin prepares her evening meal with her own hands on the upper terrace of her house. She then bores a hole through the centre of a loaf, and observes the moon through it, repeating while doing so a verse210 which means: O Poshi-Punemadi, khichadi (rice and pulse mixed together) is cooked on the terrace, and the sister of the brother takes her meal.211 The meal usually consists either of rice and milk or of rice cooked in milk and sweetened with sugar, or of kansār. She has to ask the permission of her brother or brothers before she may take her food; and if the brother refuses his permission, she has to fast for the whole of the day.212 The whole ceremony is believed to prolong the lives of her brothers and her future husband. The moon is also worshipped at the time of griha-shānti, i.e., the ceremonies performed before inhabiting a newly-built house.213

If the moon is unfavourable to a man born under a particular constellation, on account of his occupying either the 6th, the 8th or the 12th square in a kundali214 (see below) prayers are offered to the moon; and if the occasion is a marriage, a bell-metal dish, full of rice, is presented to Brahmans.215

The appearance of the moon and the position of the horns of her crescent at particular times are carefully watched as omens of future events. Cultivators believe that if the moon is visible on the second day of the bright half of Āshādh (the 9th month of Gujarati Hindus), the sesamum crops of that season will be abundant; but if the moon be hidden from sight on that day, the weather will be cloudy during the whole of Āshādh, and will prove unfavourable to vegetable growth.216 If the moon appears reddish on a Bīj day (or the second day of the bright half of a month), and if the northern horn of the crescent be high up, prices in the market are believed to rise; if, on the other hand, it is low, it prognosticates a fall in prices. If the two horns are on a level, current prices will continue.216

Similarly, the northern horn of the crescent, if it is high up on the Bīj day of Āshādh, augurs abundant rainfall; if it is low, it foreshadows a season of drought.217

If the moon presents a greenish aspect on the full-moon day of Āshādh, excessive rains may be expected in a few days; if on that day she rises quite clear and reddish, there is very little hope of good rains; if she is partly covered by clouds when she rises and then gets clear of the clouds, and then again disappears in the clouds in three ghadis,218 three pohors,218 or three days, rain is sure to fall.219

If on the 5th day of the bright half of Chaitra, the moon appears to the west of the Rohini constellation, the prices of cotton are believed to rise; if to the east, they are said to fall; and if in the same line, the current rates are believed to be likely to continue.220

The Bīj (2nd day) and the ninth day of Āshādh (the 9th month of the Gujaratis and the 4th month of the Hindus of the Deccan) falling on a Sunday is a combination that foretells excessive heat. If they fall on Wednesday, intense cold is said to be the result. Their occurring on a Tuesday, threatens absence of rains, and on a Monday, a Thursday or a Friday, foreshadows excessive rainfall.221

Thunder on Jeth-Sud-Bīj, or the second day of the bright half of Jyeshtha, is a bad omen and threatens famine.222

The spots on the moon have given rise to numerous beliefs, mythological as well as fanciful. One of them is that they are the result of a curse, pronounced by the sage Gautama on Chandra. Indra, the god of rain, was infatuated with the charms of Ahalyā, the wife of Gautama, and with the help of Chandra laid a cunning plot to gain his ignoble object. Accordingly, one night, Chandra set earlier than usual, when Indra assumed the form of a cock and crowed at midnight in order to deceive Gautama into the belief that it was dawn, and therefore his time for going to the Ganges to perform his religious services. The trick was successful, and the holy sage being thus got rid of, Indra assumed the form of Gautama himself and approached Ahalyā, who was surprised to see her husband (as she thought) so quickly returned. The wily god allayed her suspicions by explaining that it was not yet time for the morning ceremonies, and thus enjoyed the favours due to her husband. Gautama, in the meanwhile, finding the water of the Ganges cool and placid, and discovering that it was not yet dawn, returned to his hermitage. On reaching home he detected the treachery of Indra, who tried to escape in the disguise of a tom-cat. The exasperated sage then cursed Indra, Chandra and his wife: Indra to have a thousand sores on his person, Ahalyā to turn into a stone, and Chandra to have a stain on his fair face.223

Another mythological story is that Daksha Prajāpati, the son of Brahmā, gave all his twenty-seven daughters in marriage to Chandra, who was inspired with love for one of them only, named Rohini, the most beautiful of them all. The slighted twenty-six sisters complained to their father, Daksha, of Chandra’s preference for Rohini. Daksha in anger cursed Chandra to be attacked by consumption (which is supposed to be the reason of the waning of the moon) and his face to be marred by a stain.224

The curse of Gautama and the curse of Daksha are also supposed to be reasons of the waxing and the waning of the moon.

Another belief regarding the moon-spots is that when the head of Ganpati was severed by Shiva’s trident, it flew off and fell into the chariot of the moon. The spots are either the head itself225 or are due to drops of blood fallen from the flying severed head.226

The spots are also said to be explained by the fact of the image of god Krishna or Vishnu227 residing in the heart of the moon who, as a devotee of Vishnu, holds his image dear to his heart.228

The moon is often called mrigānka (lit. deer-marked) and mriga-lānchhana (lit. deer-stained); and a further explanation of the spots in this connection is that the moon-god took into his lap a strayed deer, out of compassion, and thus his lap became stained.229 Jains believe that in the nether parts of the moon’s vimān or vehicle, there is an image of a deer whose shadow is seen in the spots.230

Some persons declare the spots to be a shami tree (prosopis spicigera).231 The belief of the masses in Gujarat is said to be that the spot on the moon’s disc is the seat of an old woman, who sits spinning her wheel with a goat tethered near her.232 If the droppings of the goat were to fall on earth, departed souls would return to the earth.233

It is said that a child and a tree are never seen to grow except during the night. Such growth is therefore held to be due to lunar rays.234 As all trees, plants, etc., thrive owing to the influence of the moon, the moon-god is called the lord of herbs. The moon is also a reservoir of nectar and is called Sudhākar, i.e., one having nectarine rays.235 As the lord of herbs, the moon-god is supposed to have the power of removing all diseases that are curable by drugs, and of restoring men to health.236

Persons suffering from white leprosy, black leprosy, consumption and diseases of the eyes are believed to be cured by the observance of the Bīj and Punema vows.237 Consumption in its incipient and latter stages is also said to be cured by exposure to the rays of the moon.238 Constant glimpses of the moon add to the lustre of the eyes.239 On the Sharad-Punema, or the 15th day of the bright half of Ashvin (the last month of the Gujaratis and the 7th month of the Deccani Hindus), tailors pass a thread through their needles in the belief that they will thereby gain keener eyesight.240

A cotton-wick is exposed to the moon on Sharad-Punema, and is afterwards lighted in oil poured over the image of Hanūmān. The soot, which is thus produced, if used on the Kali-chaudas day—the fourteenth day of the dark half of Ashvin—is said to possess much efficacy in strengthening the eyesight and also in preserving the eyes from any disease during the ensuing year.241

Sweetened milk or water is exposed to moonlight during the whole of the night of Sharad-punema (the full-moon day of Ashvin) in order to absorb the nectarine rays of the moon, and is drunk next morning. Drinking in the rays of the moon in this manner is believed to cure diseases caused by heat as well as eye-diseases, and it similarly strengthens the eyesight and improves the complexion.242 Sugar-candy thus exposed and preserved in an air-tight jar is partaken of in small quantities every morning to gain strength and to improve the complexion.243 The absorption of the lunar rays through the open mouth or eyes is also believed to be of great effect in achieving these objects.244

Once upon a time the gods and demons, by their united efforts, churned the ocean and obtained therefrom fourteen ratnas or precious things.245 These were distributed among them. Lakshmi, the kaustubha jewel, the Shārnga bow and the conch-shell fell to the share of Vishnu, and the poison, Halāhal visha, was disposed of to Shiva. Only two things remained, sudhā, or nectar, and surā or liquor. To both gods and demons the nectar was the most important of all the prizes. A hard contest ensuing between them for the possession of it, the demons, by force, snatched the bowl of nectar from the gods. In this disaster to the gods, Vishnu came to their help in the form of Mohini—a most fascinating woman—and proposed to the demons that the distribution of the immortalising fluid should be entrusted to her. On their consent, Vishnu or Mohini, made the gods and the demons sit in opposite rows and began first to serve the nectar to the gods. The demon Rāhu, the son of Sinhikā, fearing lest the whole of the nectar might be exhausted before the turn of the demons came, took the shape of a god and placed himself amongst them between Chandra (the moon) and Sūrya (the sun). The nectar was served to him in turn, but on Chandra and Sūrya detecting the trick, the demon’s head was cut off by Vishnu’s discus, the sudarshana-chakra. Rāhu however did not die: for he had tasted the nectar, which had reached his throat. The head and trunk lived and became immortal, the former being named Rāhu, and the latter Ketu. Both swore revenge on Chandra and Sūrya. At times, therefore, they pounce upon Chandra and Sūrya with the intention of devouring them. In the fight that ensues, Chandra and Sūrya are successful only after a long contest, with the assistance of the gods, and by the merit of the prayers that men offer.246

The reason of the eclipse is either that Chandra and Sūrya bleed in the fight with Rāhu and their forms get blackened247; or that the demon Rāhu comes between the two luminaries and this earth, and thus causes an eclipse248; or because Rāhu obstructs the sun and the moon in their daily course, and this intervention causes an eclipse249; or because Rāhu swallows the sun and the moon, but his throat being open, they escape, their short disappearance causing an eclipse.250

Besides the mythological story, there is a belief in Gujarat that a bhangi (scavenger or sweeper), creditor of the sun and the moon, goes to recover his debts due from them, and that his shadow falling against either of them causes an eclipse.251

A third explanation of the eclipse is that the sun and the moon revolve round the Meru mountain, and the shadow of the mountain falling upon either of them causes an eclipse.252

It is believed amongst Hindus that eclipses occur when too much sin accumulates in this world.253 Most Hindus regard an eclipse as ominous, and consider the eclipse period to be unholy and inauspicious. The contact of the demon Rāhu with the rays of the sun and the moon pollutes everything on earth. Great precautions therefore become necessary to avoid pollution.254 A period of three pohors255 (prahars) in the case of the moon, and of four in the case of the sun, before the actual commencement of an eclipse, is known as vedha, i.e., the time when the luminaries are already under the influence of the demon. During this period and during the time of an eclipse people observe a strict fast. Anyone taking food within the prohibited period is considered sutaki or ceremonially impure, as if a death had happened in his family.256 An exception is, however, made in the case of children, pregnant women and suckling mothers who cannot bear the privation of a strict fast. From the beginning of an eclipse to its end, everything in the house is believed to be polluted, if touched.256

As the sun and the moon are believed to be in trouble during an eclipse, people offer prayers to God from the beginning of the vedha for their release. It is the custom to visit some holy place on an eclipse-day, to take a bath there, and to read holy passages from the Shāstras. Some people, especially Brahmans, sit devoutly on river-banks and offer prayers to the sun.256 Much secret as well as open charity is given at the time of an eclipse. But the receivers of charity during the actual period of an eclipse are the lowest classes only, such as bhangis, mahārs and māngs. When an eclipse is at its full, these people go about the streets giving vent to such cries as āpó dān chhuté chānd (give alms for the relief of the moon!).257

Among the gifts such people receive are cotton clothes, cash, grain such as sesamum seeds, udad, pulses, and salt.258 The gift of a pair of shoes is much recommended.259 Sometimes a figure of the eclipsed sun or moon is drawn in juari seeds and given away to a bhangi.260

Although the period of an eclipse is considered inauspicious, it is valued by those who profess the black art. All mantras, incantations, and prayogas, applications or experiments, which ordinarily require a long time to take effect, produce the wished for result without delay if performed during the process of an eclipse.261

If a man’s wife is pregnant, he may not smoke during the period of an eclipse lest his child become deformed.262 Ploughing a farm on a lunar-eclipse day is supposed to cause the birth of Chāndrā-children, i.e., children afflicted by the moon.262

After an eclipse Hindus bathe, perform ablution ceremonies, and dress themselves in clean garments. The houses are cleansed by cowdunging the floors, vessels are rubbed and cleansed, and clothes are washed, in order to get rid of the pollution caused by the eclipse.263 Unwashed clothes of cotton, wool, silk or hemp, according to popular belief, do not become polluted.263 The placing of darbha grass on things which are otherwise liable to pollution is also sufficient to keep them unpolluted.264

Brahmans cannot accept anything during the impious time of an eclipse, but after it is over, alms are freely given to them in the shape of such costly articles as fine clothes, gold, cattle and the like.265

After an eclipse Hindus may not break their fast till they have again seen the full disc of the released sun or the moon. It sometimes happens that the sun or the moon sets gherāyalā (while still eclipsed), and people have then to fast for the whole of the night or the day after, until the sun or the moon is again fully visible.266

There is a shloka in the Jyotish-Shāstra to the effect that Rāhu would surely devour Chandra if the nakshatra, or constellation of the second day of the dark half of a preceding month, were to recur on the Purnima (full-moon day) of the succeeding month. Similarly, in solar eclipses, a similar catastrophe would occur if the constellation of the second day of the bright half of a month were to recur on the Amāvāsya (the last day) of that month.267 The year in which many eclipses occur is believed to prove a bad year for epidemic diseases.268

The Jains do not believe in the Hindu theory of grahana (or the eclipse).269 Musalmans do not perform the special ceremonies beyond the recital of special prayers; and even these are held to be supererogatory.270

With the exception that some people believe that the stars are the abodes of the gods,271 the popular belief about the heavenly bodies seems to be that they are the souls of virtuous and saintly persons, translated to the heavens for their good deeds and endowed with a lustre proportionate to their merits.272 And this idea is illustrated in the traditions that are current about some of the stars. The seven bright stars of the constellation Saptarshi (or the Great Bear) are said to be the seven sages, Kashyapa, Atri, Bhāradwāj, Vishwāmitra, Gautama, Jāmadagni and Vasishtha, who had mastered several parts of the Vedas, and were considered specialists in the branches studied by each, and were invested with divine honours in reward for their proficiency.273 Another story relates how a certain hunter and his family, who had unconsciously achieved great religious merit, were installed as the constellation Saptarshi274 (or the Great Bear). A hunter, it is narrated in the Shivarātri-māhātmya, was arrested for debt on a Shivrātri275 day, and while in jail heard by chance the words ‘Shiva, Shiva’ repeated by some devotees. Without understanding their meaning, he also began to repeat the same words, even after he was released in the evening. He had received no food during the day, and had thus observed a compulsory fast. In order to obtain food for himself and his family, he stationed himself behind a Bel276 tree, hoping to shoot a deer or some other animal that might come to quench its thirst at a neighbouring tank. While adjusting an arrow to his bowstring, he plucked some leaves out of the thick foliage of the tree and threw them down. The leaves, however, chanced to fall on a Shiva-linga which happened to stand below, and secured for him the merit of having worshipped god Shiva with Bel-leaves on a Shivrātri day. He was also all the while repeating the god’s name and had undergone a fast. The result was that not only were his past sins forgiven, but he was placed with his family in heaven.277

Similarly, Dhruva, the son of king Uttānapād, attained divine favour by unflagging devotion, and was given a constant place in the heavens as the immovable pole-star.278

According to Hindu astrology, there are nine grahas279 or planets, twelve rāshis280 or signs of the zodiac, and twenty-seven nakshatras281 or constellations. Books on astrology explain the distinct forms of the nakshatras. For instance, the Ashvini constellation consists of two stars and presents the appearance of a horse. It ascends the zenith at midnight on the purnima (the 15th day of the bright half) of Ashvin (the first month of the Gujarati Hindus). The constellation of Mrig consists of seven stars, four like the legs of a sofa and three others under them in a line. All these twenty-seven groups of stars reach the zenith at midnight on particular days in particular months; and the months of the Hindu calendar are named after them.282

All planets influence the life of a person, one way or the other, according to their position in the heavens at the time of his birth. A kundali, i.e., a figure like the one shown here, is drawn by astrologers to illustrate the respective positions of the planets. The twelve squares of the diagram represent the twelve signs of the zodiac, and the positions of the planets in different squares influence persons in different ways. Ravi (the Sun), Budha (Mercury) and Shukra (Venus) occupy one rāshi for one month; Chandra (the Moon) occupies a rāshi for 135 ghadis,283 i.e., two days and a quarter; Mangal (Mars) for one month and a half; Guru (Jupiter) for thirteen months; Shani (Saturn) for two years and a half, and Rāhu for a year and a half. This is their normal and ordinary motion. But if they take an abnormal course and move either too fast or too slow, they finish their revolution through a rāshi within a shorter or a longer period.284