Obs. i. For a classification of these phrases v. Art. 227.
Obs. ii. Adjectives coming after verbs, with 得 tuh and 來 lé are best translated as adverbs; 做來勿好 tsú‘ lé veh ’hau, it is done badly； 寫來通極 ’siá lé t’ong giuh, it is written exactly to the purpose; 燕子飛起來頂快 ’íen ’tsz fí ’k’í lé ’ting k’wá‘, the swallow flies very swiftly; 幅子戴得齊整 mau‘ ’tsz tá‘ tuh zí tsung‘, he wears his hat properly.
345. Many verbs are used as prepositions. They are 從 zóng, 由 yeu, 到 tau‘, 連 líen, 朝 zau, 望 mong‘, 對 té‘, 上 ’zong, 下 ’hau. Examples of both uses are given.
Adverb as Substantive. 346. Adverbs of time and place precede substantives with 個 kú‘, just as one substantive precedes another.
Obs.先 síen, is an adverb in síen yau‘ ’tsung ’tung ’hau, 先要整頓 好, you must first make preparations, and an adjective in 出世最先 t’seh sz‘ tsûe‘ síen, he was born very early.
347. When the adverbs take case particles, they must be regarded as substantives.
Adverb as Adjective. 348. The derivative adverbs like the pure adjectives, form the predicate of a proposition.
Or they qualify substantives.
Adjective as Adverb. 349. Some adjectives precede verbs, and must in such cases be regarded as adverbs.
Obs. 前 zíen is an adjective in 前門 zíen mun, the front door; a post-position in 門前 mun zíen, before the door: and an adverb in 前兩日 zíen ’liáng nyih, a few days ago: 大 is usually an adjective, but in 大兩樣個 tú‘ ’liáng yáng‘ kú‘, very different and in 勿大哩 興 veh dá‘ ’lí h’iung‘, not very crowded, it is an adverb.
Postposition as Adjective. 350. When the locative case particles 外 ngá‘, 上 ’zong, 下 ’hau, 前 zíen, 後 ’heu, precede their words, they are adjectives. When they follow them, they are postpositions.
Obs. The words for north, south, east and west, are employed in the same manner, and may be regarded as postpositions. 北斗星 póh ’teu sing, north star; 江北 kong póh, north of the river; 浦東 p’u‘ tóng, east of the Hwáng-p’ú river. In the last two examples, 北 and 東 may be considered locative case particles.
Substantive as Adjective. 351. When one substantive qualifies another, it may be regarded as an adjective.
Inseparable groups. 352. In the closest kind of combinations, when words of different parts of speech form a dissyllabic word, one of them loses its proper grammatical validity by becoming a syllabic appendage to the other.
a. Thus, 交 kiau, to join, in the noun 交界 kiau ká‘, a boundary, has not the property of governing a substantive, that belongs to it in 相交朋友總要實際 siáng kiau báng ’yeu ’tsong yau‘ zeh tsí‘, in treating friends you must be true. So also other verbs, as—
b. In the same manner 功 kóng, work, 形 yung, form, and 氣 k’í‘, anger, in the following examples are not nouns, since they are neither in the nominative or accusative, or any other case. They simply add their primitive sense to the verbs they assist to form.
c. Similarly, adjectives in composition, while retaining their etymological sense, lose their individuality, and cease to qualify substantives, or to form a predicate to a subject.
Obs. In the first example 大 great is prefixed to the word for wife, independently of any second wife, and is usually equivalent to niáng ’tsz. In the third 牢 firm is joined with 定 ting‘, and the two words together govern the following substantive.
353. So in larger groups, when words of different parts of speech combine, the predominant character of the group is communicated to words, which alone have quite another kind of force; e.g. if 針 tsun, needle; 線 síen‘, thread; 情 zing, feeling, represent actions not things in the sentences—
354. When words combine to form a new compound term, different in sense from both of them, their grammatical validity is lost, and the new phrase is recognized in its entirety as a noun, verb, etc. according to its meaning. Thus, 引 ’yung, to lead, and 線 síen‘, thread, form the compound 引線 ’yung síen‘, a needle; 方 fong, square, and 便 píen‘ convenient, form 方便 fong bíen‘, alms; 裁 dzé, to cut with scissors and 縫 vóng‘, a seam, form 裁縫 dzé vóng, tailor; 招 tsau, to call, and 軍 kiün, an army, form 招軍 tsau kiün, a trumpet.
355. Coordinate words having the same grammatical power, arranged in groups of from two to five or even more characters, form a numerous class. In regard to the laws of position, the whole group is treated as a single noun or verb, or adjective as the case may be. In the examples, a hyphen connects the coordinate words.
356. Another numerous class of compounds consist of words, which, while helping to form a larger group, retain a grammatical relation to each other.
Obs. i. 出 governs 典 ancient books, and the two words together form a substantive in the objective case, after the verb m meh. The whole is equivalent 勿上書本 veh ’zong sû ’pun, it is not used in books.
Obs. ii. In phrases of this sort, we have government within government. A transitive verb with its regimen, may form part of a group, which is an elongated adjective, qualifying the following noun. Compare in English, such phrases as “a luxurious, do-nothing life.”
Obs. iii. Verbs with their regimen are freely used as adjectives, and connected by means of 箇, with the following noun; e.g. 養蠶咾種茶葉個百 姓, 今年苦惱者 yáng‘ zén lau tsóng‘ dzó yih kú‘ pká síng‘, kiun níen ’k’ú ’nau ’tsé, the silk-worm breeders and tea cultivators will this year suffer greatly. So also other combinations, 拉廣東做個 物事, 全是巧個 ’lá ’kwong tóng tsú‘ kú‘ meh zz‘, dzén ’zz ’k’iau kú‘, things made at Canton are all ingeniously worked.
357. In many cases, while there is a common grammatical character belonging to the whole group, only part of the constituent words give the sense. Thus in 苦楚 ’k’ú ’t’sú, miserable; 福氣 fók k’í‘, happiness; 恩典 un ’tíen‘ favour; the second word in each has no influence on the sense. So also 相 in 相信 siáng sing‘, to believe in, does not in colloquial usage retain the sense of reciprocity. To give that idea, an adverb such as 大家 tá‘ ká, must be prefixed.
358. Some terms originally consist of two syllables, which are written separately, only because the Chinese mode of writing requires each character to be the sign of a monosyllable.
Obs. Such words as these are construed as verbs, just as if they were monosyllabic words.
Separable groups. 359. Those combinations that admit of the insertion of other words, so as to lengthen the group will now be illustrated.
a. Those that consist of two coordinate words, admit of a qualifying or governing term being applied to each word.
b. The groups formed by the numeral particles admit the insertion of adjectives and adjective phrases, between those particles and their substantives. Material nouns sometimes take their auxiliary after them.
c. When a group consists of a transitive verb and its regimen (which sometimes answer to a single verb in English), auxiliary words come between the verb, and its object.
Obs. When a verb and adjective are combined, the tense particle follows the adjective; e.g. 繩放鬆之末好 zung fong‘ sóng tsz meh ’hau, it would be better to slacken the rope.
d. In the verb groups of direction and motion, the substantive governed is sometimes inserted after the principal verb, sometimes between the second and third auxiliaries when there are two, and sometimes it is placed at the end.
Obs. Rarely the nominative is placed after the verb it governs, 走人下來 ’tseu niun ’au lé, men are coming down; 吹風進去 t’sz fóng tsing‘ k’i‘, wind blows in.
e. Negative verb groups sometimes admit of an adverb qualifying the principal verb, and coming immediately after it.
f. Verb groups with the affirmative and negative particles, also admit the objective case after the principal verb.
Obs. In many cases, the object comes after the whole group; e.g. 當勿 住大兵 tong veh dzû‘ dá‘ ping, he cannot resist the great army; 做勿動 生活 tsú‘ veh ’dóng sáng weh, I cannot do any work.
g. Repeated verbs with the tentative 看 k’ön‘, take their accusative case before 看 k’ön‘.
360. The repetition of words frequently affects the grammatical sense of the words repeated. At other times it is mere tautology adopted for rhythmical reasons, or for the purpose of emphasis as in English. Cases in which the repeating of a word has a grammatical value, will be first considered.
Appellative and relative substantives, when repeated, are translated by all or every.
361. The numeral particles are all repeated, thereby giving the sense of all and every to their substantives. Subdivisions of time, and space, measures of material nouns, etc. are also repeated in the same sense.
Obs. i. The difference between full appellative or other nouns, and the auxiliary nouns that define time, space, quantity, and form, is here again prominently brought to view. Duplication serves to show where the two classes of terms border on each other. Thus, 街 ká, a street is not repeated; the form being, such as 街路條條沒滿之一寸高血 ká lú‘ diau diau meh ’mén tsz ih t’sun‘ kau h’iöh, the streets were all covered with blood an inch high. 衖 long‘, a lane, on the other hand is treated as a subdivision in space, and takes no numeral particle; e.g. 衖衖有十外家人家 lóng‘ lóng‘ yeu seh ngá ká niun ká, in every lane there are ten families or more.
Obs. ii. It has been shown in the section on adverbs, that substantives of time when doubled are used in the sense always. This is an instance in agreement with the broader principle, that all names of subdivisions and auxiliary numeral particles are repeated, and that the repetition implies universality.
362. Adjectives are sometimes repeated before a substantive, but much more frequently when placed as predicate after it. No addition is thereby made to the sense.
363. When doubled, adjectives follow verbs they are translated as adverbs.
Obs. It has been shown that repeated adjectives placed before verbs qualify them like adverbs. We have also 攏攏總總有一百 ’lóng ’lóng tsóng‘ tsóng‘ ’yeu ih páh, altogether there are a hundred. The primitive adverbs are not repeated.
364. Several relative substantives are repeated without any alteration in the sense.
365. When verbs are repeated, it is for rhythmical reasons, and for the sake of alliteration. In addition to the examples given in Art. 231, the following will serve to exhibit the use of these seeming tautologies.
a. Single verbs are repeated with or without a regimen.
b. In a verb group of two, the second word is often repeated.
c. Many groups of four contain a single repeated verb.
d. Many verb groups of two are extended by the repetition of each word.
e. Frequently in repeated groups of four, the constituent words alternate.
f. The verb is repeated alternately with two accusatives.
366. With regard to their syntax, groups consisting of repetitions frequently form separate clauses of a sentence, but not exclusively so. They also like other groups, obey the laws of position of section 1 in relation to neighbouring words, and in their internal structure, and are construed as adjectives, verbs, or adverbs according to their particular character and use as a whole.
a. As adjective, whether forming a predicate or in apposition.
b. As verb.
c. As verb.
Obs. Groups of four, whether formed by repeated words or not, very commonly fall into separate clauses; e.g. 文理嘸啥好草草不工 vun ’lí m sá‘ ’hau, ’t’sau ’t’sau peh kóng, it is not at all well written, but coarse and unpolished.
367. There are various principles of arrangement in the words of a group. A group of four (1) may contain in itself an entire sentence; e.g. 懂呢勿懂 ’tóng ní veh ’tóng, do you understand? (2) or it may consist of verbs and their regimen, nouns and their adjectives, or other combinations of the parts of speech; e.g. 伸冤理枉 sun yön ’lí ’wong, to redress injuries. (3) Repetition direct and alternate, forms many short phrases into longer groups, (4.) The principle of arrangement in many groups is, the order of nature, species being placed before genus, and the whole before its parts. (5.) The constituent words may be coordinate in meaning, and alike in grammatical character.
In addition to these varieties of structure, there are also mixed groups in which repetition for instance forms one part, and words combined grammatically, another; e.g. 念念不忘 nian‘ nian‘ peh vong, think of constantly.
368. Complete sentences are here placed with the other groups, because they fall into regular forms, and obey the laws of rhythm in a manner similar the fixed phrases of two, three, four or more words here referred to. Hence the predominance of short pithy sentences in common conversation.
Obs. The order of the words in these phrases is regulated by the rules of Part III, section 1, and the sections on propositions.
369. Many groups have an internal syntactical arrangement, and they are so numerous, that although some examples have already been given, more will here appended. They may be divided into (a), those in which there is a repetition of the idea, and (b) where there is none.
370. Passing over repetition groups, as already sufficiently illustrated, some examples will be given of those in which several words coordinate in sense are placed in proximity. In many instances such words as express relative superiority stand first.
Obs. On presenting these examples to a Fuh-kien literary man, it was found that half of the groups were in use in his dialect; of the remainder, more than half were partially the same with collocations familiar to him, while the rest were entirely different.
371. Species invariably precedes genus, and matter form, in groups formed of words thus related.
Obs. i. Substance precedes accident or attribute, and the whole its part. This is sometimes the same with the proposition immediately above, genus being only such part of species as happens to belong commonly to several objects. We may fix our attention on either word in the compound indifferently, considering it as the essence, while the other is the accident. Thus, 屋基 óh kí, foundation of a house; 屋頂 hó ’ting, house roof, are parts of the appellative substantive house. So, if speaking of the articles into which bamboo is manufactured, the second word in 竹牌 tsóh bá, piece of flattened bamboo; 竹簾 tsóh líen, bamboo window-blinds; 竹紙 tsóh ’tsz, bamboo paper, is in each case that which expresses form, while the first describes the material.
The latter may be viewed as accidental to the former, or if preferred, the second word may called genus, while the first is considered as limiting it to a particular species.
Obs. ii. In conformity with the principle, that the word in which the substance of the noun inheres should stand first, the auxiliary appendages 頭 deu, 子 ’tsz, 處 t’sû‘, 法 fah follow their words; e.g. 飯嘸尋處 van‘ m zing t’sû‘, there is no way of getting a living; 寫法總有個 ’siá fah ’tsóng ’yeu kú‘, there must be some mode of writing it.
Obs. iii. The auxiliary substantives and numeral particles appropriated to particular nouns, when they follow their words without a numeral, exemplify the same law; e.g. 白話裏向勿要加出多許書句 páh wó‘ ’lí h’iáng‘ veh yau‘ ká t’seh tú hau‘ sû kü‘, do not mingle so many book sentences in what you say.
Obs. iv. In double substantives formed partly with a verb, the verb as giving the species stands first; e.g. 算盤 sön‘ bén, counting board; 印板 yun‘ ’pan, printing blocks; 話柄 wó ping‘, a bon mot (See Art. 113.).
Obs. v. Many inseparable dissyllabic substantives, in which the distinction of matter and form is not obvious in their daily use, if viewed etymologically may be noticed to have the same order; e.g. 文章 vun tsáng, literary compositions; 地方 tí‘ fong, a place. The word giving the matter stands in each case first.
372. If the action be gradual in a compound verb, the word first in time is first in order. The word that concludes the action comes last.
Obs. i. Most of the auxiliary particles occurring in compound verbs follow the principal word; v. Art. 217, 222, but 打 ’táng, and such adverbs as help to form compound verbs precede the principal words; e.g. 打緝打緝看 ’táng t’sih ’táng t’sih k’ön‘, make inquiries.
Obs. ii. The auxiliary verbs of power, forming a potential mode, precede their verbs. 勿會白話 veh wé‘ báh wó‘, he cannot talk; 勿能去 veh nung k’í‘, he cannot go. In English, there are also auxiliaries of this kind preceding other verbs in apposition, without the sign of the infinitive intervening; e.g. may, can.
Variation in Order. 373. The components of some groups admit of more than one mode of arrangement. The following may be used in a direct or inverted order.
Obs. The number of groups variable in order, is comparatively extremely small. The number of cases in English, where one particular order of coordinate words is maintained, is by no means small; e.g. long and happy reign; far and near; kings and queens.
374. The following principles of arrangement may be distinguished in the apposition of verbs.
a. The auxiliaries of the future tense, and the imperative and potential moods precede their verb. 要 yau‘, 會 wé‘, 能 nung.
b. When the object of a verb is an action, it is expressed by a verb in Chinese, instead of a verbal derivative, or infinitive, or gerund form, such as would be used in languages having grammatical forms.
c. The auxiliary verbs expressive of direction and motion, beginning and completion, etc. follow the principal verb.
d. Priority in time often determines the order of verbs.
e. Coordinate verbs.
375. The simplest sentence is that in which there is a single word, forming the subject (主 ’tsû), and another the predicate (賓 ping). The subject always precedes.
Obs. i. Occasionally the predicate precedes, 出會 t’seh wé‘, the procession is out; 落水 lok ’sz, the tide is falling. These forms may also be explained as impersonal verbs with an accusative.
Obs. ii. An adjective forms of itself a complete predicate, and usually has no copula to connect it with the preceding nominative. 桃子熟者 tau ’tsz zók ’tsé, the peaches are ripe.
376. The simple proposition in its full form has also a copula.
Obs. When the predicate is a verb, the copula may be always considered as included in it. It is when the predicate is an adjective that a vacuum becomes obvious to a foreign ear.
377. The subject may consist of a substantive, or a substantive group, a pronoun, a verb or a verb group, or adverbs of place and time, construed as nouns.
Obs. i. Sometimes the subject is understood; e.g. 總要立定主意 ’tsóng yau‘ lih ding‘ ’tsû í‘, (you) must be resolute.
Obs. ii. Adjectives also sometimes form a predicate. 好有好報, ’hau ’yeu ’hau pau‘, goodness has a good reward; 善咾惡總要辨出來 ’zén lau oh ’tsóng yau‘ bíen‘ t’seh lé, virtue and vice must be distinguished.
Obs. iii. Any word that qualifies a noun may be removed from its place in apposition, and become a predicate. Thus, 第座房子是拉個 tí‘ zú‘ vong ’tsz ’zz ’lá kú‘, this house is the right one, may become, 是第座房子 ’zz dí‘ zú‘ vong ’tsz, it is this one; 兩條橋有, ’liáng diau giau ’yeu, there are two bridges, or 橋有兩條 kiau ’yeu ’liáng diau, of bridge there are two.
378. When the copula is used, it takes the forms of 是 ’zz, 得 tuh, 來得 lé tuh, and 來 lé before adjective predicates, while 做 tsu‘, and in some groups 爲 wé‘ and 作 tsoh precede substantives.
Obs. Educated men appear to avoid the use of 來 lé, as a substitute for 得, but it is extremely common among the lower classes.
379. In the predicate are found, a substantive, adjective, verb, or adverb, or a group of either.
Obs. The final expletives are usually appended to the predicate. 說話 好個 seh wó‘ ’hau kú‘, your words are good.
380. In very many sentences, the predicate is a transitive verb with an object, which in its simplest form is a substantive, monosyllabic or consisting of a group.
381. Great variety is introduced into sentences, without the addition of separate clauses, by applying qualifying words and groups to the parts just enumerated. Extension by the apposition of words, alike or contrasted in meaning, and in the same parts of speech, is also very common. The subject is extended:—
a. By prefixing an adjective.
b. By apposition of substantives with or without kú‘, whether in the relation of species and genus, or subject and attribute.
c. By a transitive infinitive with its objective case.
d. By the addition of nouns or verbs governed by case particles.
Obs. The so-called genitive with 個 kú‘, included under (b) as an instance of apposition. It is the attributive genitive, or possessive case of western grammars. The genitive sense is given by the relative position of the words, and not by the connecting particle kú‘ often omitted.
e. By prefixing numbers and numeral particles to substantives.
f. By prefixing demonstrative, possessive and other adjective pronouns to substantives.
g. By prefixing adverbs of place or time with the sign of the possessive, or with no intervening particle. It might also be said, that these adverbs are here all treated as substantives.
382. Several of these adjuncts may concur in forming a subject.
383. The predicate is extended in a similar manner. It may assume the following forms.
а. Substantive with its adjective.
b. Substantives in apposition, in the relation of species and genus, or subject and attribute, with or without 個 kú‘.
c. Verbs in apposition. Any verbs in English connected by and, to and of are translated by two corresponding verbs in apposition.
d. Verb with an object.
e. Verbs, nouns or adverbs of place and time in construction with 拉 or 在.
f. Adjective pronouns, and numbers with the particles appropriated to the substantives contained in the subject.
g. The verb is qualified by the various kinds of adverbs, either preceding it in apposition, or following it with 得 tuh, or 來 lé, as subordinate copula.
h. The cause, manner, instrument, place or time of the action are expressed by nouns preceding the verb.
Obs. The number of prepositions omitted in examples similar to these is very great. Few of them are so essential that they may not be rejected. The remarkable conciseness of written and spoken Chinese is due very much to the omission of prepositions in the manner here illustrated. For that conciseness, there is however in many cases full compensation, in the wordiness or richness, whichever term be preferred, of the groups.
j. The same circumstances of cause manner, etc. are also expressed with case particles attached to the noun.
k. Adjective with a qualifying adverb.
384. The predicate is further enlarged by a combination of the above forms of arrangement, by simple apposition as coordinates, or according to the laws of position already detailed.
385. The copula by a little extension of the meaning of the terms, may be considered as embracing the emphatic adverbs, and the verb forms for affirmation and negation. In conformity with this, the substantive verb 是 is constantly used in the sense of yes, and with the negative particle (勿是), no. The adverbs of emphasis precede the copula.
Obs. The verb to have 有 ’yeu (with its opposite 嘸沒 m meh) describes existence, as in French the verb avoir. The adverbs of emphasis precede it, as they do the other substantive verb; e.g. 一點嘸沒啥 ih ’tíen m meh sá, or m sá‘, there is nothing the matter; 第個道理實在有 tí‘ kú‘ ’tau ’lí zeh zé‘ ’yeu, there certainly is this doctrine.
386. When there is a negative particle, the adverb of emphasis precedes it.
Obs. When the necessity is denied, the negative precedes the adverb expressity; e.g. 勿必要去 veh pih yau‘ k’i‘, you are not obliged to go.
387. There are several verbs, not having a full transitive power, that are often to be taken as little more than an extension of the copula. They are such as, 呌 kiau‘, 做 tsú‘, 爲 wé, 作 tsoh.
Obs. The equivalents of these words, in languages having forms of declension, usually take the nominative case after them.
388. The correlative pronouns and sometimes adjectives, are placed like the emphatic adverbs before the copula, the substantives they represent being the subject.