Owing to their extensive geographical range, and the great variations, both in size, form, and coloration to which Leopards are subject, zoologists have scarcely decided whether all the forms popularly referred to this animal should be regarded as specifically alike, or whether they should constitute several distinct species, but the prevailing opinion is in favour of the former view. The attempts to separate a larger and more robust variety, under the name of Panther, from a smaller and more graceful form, to which the term Leopard might properly be restricted, have failed, owing to the existence of intermediate conditions which cannot be assigned definitely to either one or the other form.[436] The most marked anatomical difference yet noted in different varieties of leopard is in the length of the tail as compared with that of the body, even the number of the caudal vertebræ showing variation, though within what limits, and whether correlated with other characters, has not yet been clearly ascertained. The fur of those specimens which inhabit the most northern confines of its range of distribution, as North China, is longer and softer, and the markings are consequently less distinct than on those from more congenial climates, and the well-marked variation thus produced has given rise to the idea of specific distinction.

The size of different individuals, as before said, varies greatly, the head and body usually measuring from 3½ to 4½ feet in length, and the tail from 2½ to 3 feet, but specimens have been met with which fall short of or exceed these limits. The ground colour of the fur varies from a pale fawn to a rufous buff, graduating into a pure white on the under parts and inside of the limbs. This is spotted over with dark brown or black; the spots on the back and sides being arranged in rosettes or broken rings, which vary greatly in size and distinctness in different individuals, but are without the central spot seen in those of the Jaguar. The spots on the under parts and limbs are simple and blacker than those on the other parts of the body. The bases of the ears behind are black, the tips buff. The upper side of the tail is buff, spotted with broken rings like the back, its under surface white with simple spots. The hair of the cubs is longer than that of the adults, its ground colour less bright, and its spots less distinct. Perfectly black Leopards, which, however, in certain lights show the characteristic markings on the fur, are not uncommon. These appear to be examples of melanism, occurring as individual variations, sometimes in one cub out of a litter of which the rest are normally coloured, and therefore not indicating a distinct race, much less a species. These are met with chiefly in Southern Asia. We are not aware of any recorded case from Africa, though there seems no reason why they should not occur.

In habits the Leopard resembles the other large Cat-like animals, yielding to none in the ferocity and bloodthirstiness of its disposition. It is exceedingly quick and active in its movements, but seizes its prey by waiting in ambush or stealthily approaching to within springing distance, when it suddenly rushes upon it and tears it to the ground with its powerful claws and teeth. It preys upon almost any animal it can overcome, such as antelopes, deer, sheep, goats, monkeys, peafowls, and is said to have a special liking for dogs. It not unfrequently attacks human beings in India, chiefly children and old women, but instances have been known of a Leopard becoming a regular “man-eater.” When favourable opportunities occur, it often kills many more victims than it can devour at once, apparently to gratify its propensity for killing, or only for the sake of their fresh blood. It generally inhabits woody districts, and can climb high trees with facility if necessary for its safety when hunted, but usually lives on or near the ground, among rocks, bushes, and roots and low branches of large trees.

The present geographical range of the Leopard is very extensive, as it is met with in various suitable localities, where not too much interfered with by human cultivation, throughout the greater part of Africa from Algeria to the Cape Colony, and through the whole of the South of Asia from Palestine to China, including all India south of the Himalaya, and the islands of Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. Fossil bones and teeth, indistinguishable from those of existing Leopards, have been found in cave-deposits of Pleistocene age in Spain, France, Germany, and England. The evidence of the former existence of the Leopard in England is described at length by Boyd Dawkins and Sanford in their British Pleistocene Mammalia.[437]

The Ounce, or Snow Leopard (F. uncia), inhabits the highlands of Central Asia, from the lofty mountains of Tibet to the southern parts of Siberia, at altitudes of from 9000 to 18,000 feet above the sea. It is about the size of the common Leopard, but lighter in colour, with longer fur, less distinct spots, and a long thick tail. Its skull differs in shape from that of all the other Felidæ; the facial portion being very broad, the nasal bones especially being wide and depressed, and the zygomatic arches very strong and deep. The Clouded Tiger (F. nebulosa[438]) is a beautifully marked species, with elongated head and body, long tail, and rather short limbs. The canine teeth are proportionally longer than in any existing member of the genus. It is thoroughly arboreal, and is found in the forests of South-East Asia and the islands of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Formosa. F. serval, the Serval, from South Africa, is yellow with black spots, and has a short tail and large ears. Numerous smaller species called Tiger Cats and Wild Cats, of which the Oriental F. marmorata (Fig. 227) is a good example, are found throughout the warmer parts of Asia and Africa. The Wild Cat of Europe, F. catus, still inhabits the mountainous and wooded parts of Great Britain.

The Caffre Cat (F. caffra[439]), of Africa and Southern Asia, was the species held in veneration by the ancient Egyptians, and immense numbers of its mummified remains have recently been found in Egypt, whence they have been imported in large quantities to this country for manure. This species is generally regarded as the main ancestral stock from which the European Domestic Cat has been derived; one of the arguments in support of this opinion being that the whole of the sole of the hind foot of F. caffra is black, and that the same feature obtains in the darker varieties of the Domestic Cat; while in F. catus there are only spots of black upon this portion of the limb. Remains of the Caffre Cat occur in the Pleistocene cave-deposits at Gibraltar. The Indian F. rubiginosa is the smallest species of Cat.

The Caracal or Persian Lynx (F. caracal) is an animal about the size of a fox, of slender build, with a moderately long tail, reaching down to the heels. It is of a uniform vinous or bright fulvous brown colour above, and is paler, sometimes almost white, beneath. It is quite or almost entirely unspotted. The tail has a black tip, and the ears are black externally, long, upright, pointed, and surmounted by a pencil of fine black hairs. It inhabits Central and North-West India, Persia, Arabia, Syria, and the greater part of Africa.

The true Lynxes comprise various species or varieties found in the northern and temperate regions of both the Old and New World, all larger than the true Wild Cats, with long limbs, short stumpy tail, ears tufted at the tip, and pupil of the eye linear when contracted. Their fur is generally long and soft, varying, however, according to season and locality, and always longish upon the cheeks. Their colour is always light brown or gray, and generally more or less spotted with a darker shade. The naked pads of the feet are more or less covered by the hair that grows between them. The skull and skeleton do not differ markedly from those of the other cats, but the small anterior upper premolar tooth found in many other species is usually wanting; and the lower carnassial has a rudimental talon. Their habits are exactly those of the other Wild Cats, and they are exceeded by none in the untameable savageness of their disposition. They capture their prey in the same manner, either lying in wait, or noiselessly stealing within reach, and then making a sudden rush or spring upon it. Their food consists of any mammals or birds which they can overpower. In inhabited countries they commit extensive ravages upon sheep, lambs, and poultry. Lynxes generally frequent rocky places and forests, being active climbers, and passing much of their time among the branches of the trees. Their skins are of considerable commercial value.

Zoologists are by no means agreed at present as to the specific distinctions, if any really exist, between the various modifications of this group. As many as eight species are sometimes recognised, four belonging to the Old and four to the New World. The former are F. lynx, of Scandinavia, Russia, Northern Asia, and till lately the forest regions of Central Europe; though not an inhabitant of Britain during the historic period, its remains have been found in cave-deposits of Pleistocene age; F. cervaria, Siberia; F. pardina, Turkey, Greece, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain; and F. isabellina, Tibet. The American varieties are F. canadensis, the most northern species, and F. rufa, the American Wild Cat or Bay Lynx, extensively distributed from the Atlantic to the Pacific throughout nearly the whole latitude of the United States, but replaced in Texas and southern California by F. maculata, and in northern Oregon and Washington territory by F. fasciata.

In both cases, as might be supposed, specimens obtained from the more southern climates are shorter in their fur, more brightly coloured, and more distinctly spotted than those from colder regions. When only a few individuals of each most markedly different form are examined the distinctions are sufficiently evident. The occurrence, however, of transitional or intermediate forms makes it extremely difficult to draw the line between the different varieties or species, or to assign definite characters by which they can be separated. Wherefore it is best at present to accept the so-called species as only provisional, and wait until more abundant materials, with fuller knowledge of the localities from which they are derived, and of the variations due to age, sex, season, and climate, have been more carefully studied. We shall then probably come to the conclusion that all or nearly all the existing forms of northern Lynxes, whether American or Eurasian, belong to what may fairly be called a species, which is becoming by degrees differentiated into several more or less strongly marked local varieties. Mr. W. T. Blanford has indeed shown that the Tibetan Lynx (F. isabellina) is inseparable from F. lynx; the specimens from Gilgit being intermediate in colour between the typical forms of the two races. On the other hand, from the evidence of cranial characters, Professor Mivart is disposed to regard F. pardina as a valid species.

B. New World Species.—The Puma or Couguar (F. concolor, Fig. 229), commonly called “Panther” in the United States, is about the size of a Leopard, but of an uniform brown colour. It usually measures from nose to root of tail about 40 inches, the tail being rather more than half that length. The head is rather small compared with that of other Cats and has no mane. The ears are large and rounded. The tail is cylindrical, with some bushy elongation of the hairs near the end, but not forming a distinct tuft as in the Lion. The general colour of all the upper parts and sides of the adult is a tawny yellowish-brown, sometimes having a gray or silvery shade, but in some individuals dark or inclining to red. The lower parts of the body, inner surface of the limbs, the throat, chin, and upper lip are dirty white; the outside of the ears, particularly at their base, and a patch on each side of the muzzle black; the end of the tail dusky. The young are, when born, spotted with dusky brown and the tail ringed; these markings gradually fading, and quite disappearing before the animal becomes full-grown.

The Puma has an exceedingly wide range of geographical distribution, extending over a hundred degrees of latitude, from Canada in the north to Patagonia in the south, and was formerly pretty generally diffused in suitable localities from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, but the advances of civilisation have in recent years considerably curtailed the extent of the districts which it inhabits. In Central America it is still common in the dense forests which clothe the mountain ranges as high as 8000 or 9000 feet above the sea-level, where the hideous sound of its howling is said to be almost continuously heard at night during the breeding season. Though an expert climber, it is by no means confined to wooded districts, being frequently found in scrub and reeds along the banks of rivers, and even in the open pampas and prairies. Its habits much resemble those of the rest of the group to which it belongs; and, like the Leopard, when it happens to come within reach of an abundant and easy prey, as the sheep or calves of an outlying farming station, it kills far more than it can eat, either for the sake of the blood only or to gratify its propensity for destruction. It rarely attacks man, and, when pursued, escapes if possible by ascending lofty trees. Several instances have occurred of Pumas becoming tame in captivity. Edmund Kean, the celebrated actor, had one which followed him about like a dog. When caressed they express their pleasure by purring like a domestic cat.

F. onca, the Jaguar, is a larger and more powerful animal than the last, and more resembles the Leopard in its colours. It also is found in both North and South America, but with less extensive range, reaching northwards only as far as Texas, and southwards nearly to Patagonia. It climbs as well as the Puma, and preys to a great extent upon monkeys. Several allied smaller elegantly spotted forms inhabiting the intratropical regions of America are commonly included under the name of Ocelot or Tiger Cat, though zoologists are still undecided whether under this designation several distinct species have not been confused, or whether all the Ocelots are to be referred to a single species (F. pardalis) showing great individual or racial variation. Their fur has always a tawny yellow or reddish-gray ground colour, and is marked with black spots, aggregated in streaks and blotches, or in elongated rings enclosing an area which is rather darker than the general ground colour. They range through the wooded parts of tropical America, from Arkansas in the north as far south as Paraguay, and in their habits resemble the other smaller members of the Cat tribe, being ready climbers and exceedingly bloodthirsty.

F. yaguarundi, rather larger than the Domestic Cat, with an elongated head and body, and of a uniform brownish-gray colour, ranges from Matamoras to Paraguay. F. eyra is a small Cat, very Musteline in form, having an elongated head, body, and tail, and short limbs, and is also of a uniform light reddish-brown colour. It is a native of South America and Mexico. F. pajeros is the Pampas Cat. The American Lynxes have been already noticed with those of the Old World.

C. Fossil Species.—It has been already incidentally mentioned that several of the existing species of Felis, such as the Lion, Leopard and Caffre Cat, are met with in a fossil condition in the European Pleistocene deposits, and it may be added that the Pardine Lynx has left its remains in the cavern-deposits of Gibraltar. The caves of Brazil have yielded remains of the Jaguar and Ocelot; while the Puma is found in the Pleistocene of the United States. Existing species now inhabiting India are met with in cavern-deposits in Madras. In the Pliocene Siwaliks of Northern India the huge extinct F. cristata shows characters connecting it both with the Tiger and the Jaguar; and the same deposit also contains the remains of a small species of the size of F. bengalensis. In Europe numerous species occur in the Upper and Lower Pliocene, some of which were as large as a Leopard. F. atrox and F. augusta, of the Pliocene of the United States, were of the dimensions of the Lion.

Cynælurus.[440]—The Cheeta or Hunting Leopard (C. jubatus) is distinguished from the other Felidæ by the inner tubercle of the upper carnassial, though supported by a distinct root, having no salient cusp upon it; by the tubercular molar being more in a line with the other teeth; and by the claws being smaller, less curved, and less completely retractile, owing to the feebler development of the elastic ligaments. The skull is short and high, with the frontal region broad and elevated in consequence of the large development of the frontal air-sinuses. The head is small and round, the body light, the limbs and tail long. Its colour is pale yellowish-brown with small black spots. The Cheeta is less savage and more easily tamed than most of the Cats. In Asia it has been trained for the chase of the Antelope. It has rather an extensive geographical range from the Cape of Good Hope, throughout Africa and the south-western parts of Asia, as far as Southern India.

Extinct Genera.—A number of forms are gradually becoming known, especially through the researches of American palæontologists, which, though evidently animals of the same general type, and therefore to be placed in or near the family Felidæ, depart so much in various details of structure that they must be referred to different genera. As one of the points in which Felis manifests its specialisation is the reduction of the number of the molar series of teeth, with concomitant shortening of the jaws, it might be supposed that in the earlier and perhaps ancestral forms these teeth would be more numerous and approach more nearly to the primitive or typical number of the heterodont mammals, viz. seven on each side. This is actually the case. Similarly we find that many of these forms exhibit a less specialised structure of the teeth themselves, as is shown by the absence of the anterior lobe of the upper carnassial, and the retention of the hind talon in the corresponding lower tooth. Again, some of them have an alisphenoid canal in the skull; while the femur may have a third trochanter, and the claws be very imperfectly retractile.

An extremely generalised form is the small Proælurus, from the Upper Eocene and Lower Miocene, with p ⁴⁄₄, m ¹⁄₂, an alisphenoid canal, and a third trochanter to the femur. Dinictis, of the North American Miocene, is a larger allied form, with p ³⁄₃, m ¹⁄₂; the upper carnassial having no anterior lobe, and the ungual phalanges being devoid of bony sheaths. The characters of the base of the skull, and the form and relations of the astragalus, differ very considerably from Felis. Pseudælurus, from the French Miocene, is another very generalised Feline, in which there may be either three or four premolars, and the lower carnassial may retain its inner cusp. Ælurictis, of the French Phosphorites, with p ³⁄₃₋₄, m ¹⁄₁₋₂, together with several American Miocene genera, such as Nimravus (p ³⁄₂, m ¹⁄₂), Archælurus (p ³⁄₃₋₄, m ¹⁄₂), Pogonodon (p ³⁄₃, m ¹⁄₁), and Hoplophoneus (p ²⁻³⁄₂, m ¹⁄₁), approach more closely to the modern Cats, although many or all of them retain the alisphenoid canal, and have not yet developed the anterior lobe to the upper carnassial, or lost the talon to the lower one. Hoplophoneus has a descending flange to the mandible; and its scapholunar bone has a line indicating its dual origin; while the femur still retains the third trochanter, of which all traces are lost in the modern Cats.

On the other hand, some of the extinct Felidæ show a most remarkable tendency towards a specialisation not occurring in any of the surviving members of the family, viz. an enormous development of the upper canines, with which is usually associated an expansion downwards and flattening of the anterior part of the ramus of the lower jaw, on the outer side of which the canine lies, when the mouth is closed. In Machærodus næogeus, the Sabre-toothed Tiger, from the caves of Brazil and also from Pleistocene deposits near Buenos Ayres, an animal about the size of a Tiger, these teeth are 7 inches in length, greatly compressed, and finely serrated on the trenchant anterior edges. Similar serrations are seen on a much fainter scale in the unworn teeth of modern Tigers. Many modifications of this commonly-called “machærodont” type have been met with both in the Old and New World. In M. cultridens, of the Upper Pliocene of Italy and France, the upper canine is long and narrow, with smooth cutting edges; the smaller form described as M. meganthereon being apparently the female of this species. M. crenatidens, of the same deposits, is distinguished by the shorter and broader upper canine, in which both edges are strongly serrated; the same feature occurring in the closely allied or identical M. latidens of the English cavern-deposits. The Italian Pliocene form described as M. nestianus has serrations only on the hinder edge of the upper canine, and the third lower premolar is separated by a long interval from the fourth. M. necator, of the Pleistocene of South America, is remarkable as being the only member of the family in which the humerus has no entepicondylar foramen. A very remarkable form, Eusmilus, from the Upper Eocene Phosphorites of Central France, differs from all other known Felines in having only two pairs of incisors in the lower jaw, and a small canine separated by a very long diastema from the cheek-teeth, which consist only of one premolar and one sectorial true molar. The lower jaw is enormously expanded towards the symphysis to protect the large upper canines. This animal then, although of Eocene age, appears to form the culminating development of the sabre-toothed or machærodont dentition, the most specially carnivorous type of structure known.

Other species of Machærodus are found in the Pliocene deposits of Europe and Asia. The accompanying woodcut exhibits the last two upper teeth of the Indian M. sivalensis, from which it will be seen that the inner tubercle of the carnassial is much reduced in size, while the molar is very minute.

Family Viverridæ.

Premolars ³⁄₃ or ⁴⁄₄. Molars ¹⁄₁ or ²⁄₂. Upper carnassial usually without an anterior lobe, and the lower one with a well-developed talon; second lower incisor (as in all the following families) raised above the level of the first and third. Auditory bulla externally constricted, and divided by a septum. An alisphenoid canal (with very rare exceptions). Carotid canal distinct as a groove on the side of the bulla. Humerus usually with an entepicondylar foramen. Digits usually 5-5, but sometimes the pollex or hallux or both may be wanting. Dorsal vertebræ 13 or 14. Limited in distribution to the Old World.

The subfamily Cryptoproctinæ contains the single genus Cryptoprocta.[441] Dentition: i ³⁄₃, c ¹⁄₁, p ⁴⁄₄, m ¹⁄₁; total 36. The teeth generally closely resemble those of the Felidæ. The first premolar of both jaws is very minute and early deciduous. The upper carnassial has a very small inner tubercle, quite at the anterior part of the tooth. The true molar is very small and placed transversely. The lower carnassial has a large trenchant bilobed blade, and a very minute talon, but no inner cusp. Skull generally like that of Felis, but proportionately longer and narrower. Orbit widely open behind. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 29. Body elongated. Limbs moderate in size. Feet subplantigrade; five well-developed toes on each, with sharp, compressed, retractile claws. Ears moderate. Tail long and cylindrical.

The only known species, C. ferox, the “Foussa” of the Malagasy, is peculiar to Madagascar, being the largest carnivorous animal in the island. It is about twice the size of the common Cat (5 feet from nose to end of tail), with short close fur of nearly uniform pale brown. Little is as yet known of its habits, except that it is nocturnal, frequently attacks and carries off goats, and especially kids, and shows great ferocity when wounded, on which account it is much dreaded by the natives.

The remaining numerous specific and generic modifications found in the existing animals belonging to this family seem to arrange themselves mainly into two tolerably distinct groups, distinguishable by the characters of the auditory bulla and neighbouring parts of the base of the skull, and by the structure of the feet. The one form has the genus Viverra or Civet Cats for its most typical representative, and the other Herpestes or the Ichneumons.

Subfamily Viverrinæ.—Auditory bulla oval, or rather conical, broad and truncated and not everted behind, narrow in front and more or less compressed at the sides. The outer or anterior chamber very small and flat. The meatus with scarcely any inferior lip, its orifice being close to the tympanic ring. Paroccipital process triangular, its apex projecting slightly beyond the bulla. Claws strongly curved and more or less retractile. Perineal scent-glands generally present.

This subfamily includes both Ethiopian and Oriental forms, but the former are the more numerous.

The typical section, which includes five genera, has the following characters. Dentition: i ³⁄₃, c ¹⁄₁, p ⁴⁄₄, m ²⁄₂ (¹⁄₂ in Prionodon); total 40. Skull elongated; facial portion small and compressed. Orbits well-defined but incomplete behind. Teeth always sectorial, never very small. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7 (or D 14, L 6), S 3, C 22-30. Body elongated and compressed. Head pointed in front; ears rather small. Extremities short. Feet small and rounded. Toes short, five on each foot. First toe both on fore and hind feet much shorter than the others. Palms and soles covered with hair, except the pads of the feet and toes, and in some species a narrow central line on the under side of the sole, extending backwards nearly to the heel. Tail moderate or long; usually marked with dark and light rings. A pair of large glandular follicles situated on the perineum (in both sexes), and secreting in most species an oily substance of a peculiarly penetrating odour.

The numerous species of this section form a large series, the two extremes of which differ considerably, but the several genera into which they may be divided blend so into one another that it is difficult to differentiate them sharply.

All the animals of this section are, for their size, extremely active, fierce, and rapacious. They feed chiefly on small mammals and birds.

Viverra.[442]—This includes the largest species. The teeth (Fig. 232) are stouter and less compressed than in the other genera; the second upper molar being especially larger. The auditory bulla smaller and more pointed in front. Body shorter and stouter; limbs longer; tail shorter, tapering. Under side of tarsus completely covered with hair. Claws longer and less retractile. Fur rather long and loose, and in the middle line of the neck and back usually elongated so as to form a sort of crest or mane; neck with a black gorget. Pupil circular when contracted. Perineal glands greatly developed. These characters apply especially to V. civetta, the African Civet, or “Civet-Cat” as it is commonly called, an animal rather larger than a common Fox, and an inhabitant of intratropical Africa. V. zibetha, the Indian Civet, of about equal size, inhabits Bengal, China, the Malay Peninsula, and adjoining islands. V. tangalunga, from Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippines, and V. megaspila, from Burma, are smaller but nearly allied animals; the latter being more distinctly spotted than either of the others. From these species and the next the civet of commerce, once so much admired as a perfume in England, and still largely used in the East, is obtained. The animals are kept in cages, and the odoriferous secretion collected from the interior of the perineal follicles with a spoon or spatula.

The Rasse or Lesser Indian Civet (V. malaccensis) may be regarded as the representative of a distinct group of Viverra, although often referred to a separate genus (Viverricula). The size of this animal is smaller than in the typical group, the build is slighter, the muzzle finer, the claws sharper and more curved, and there is no erectile mane along the back. Generally there is an alisphenoid canal in the skull; and the anterior chamber of the auditory bulla is much more inflated than the hinder one, so that the apparent length of the whole bulla is increased. This species is found over the greater part of India, and extends to the Malay Peninsula and Southern China.

Large species of Viverra occur in the Pleistocene and Pliocene of India, and also in the Pliocene of France, which approximate in some characters of the dentition to the extinct genus Ictitherium, mentioned at the end of the family. Species of this genus have also been described from the Miocene and Upper Eocene of Europe. The Lower Miocene V. antiqua has an alisphenoid canal, and all the other cranial characters of the typical forms.

Fossa.[443]—The Fossa of Madagascar comes so close to the Rasse that its right to generic distinction seems doubtful. There is, however, no scent-pouch. The limbs are slender; and there are two small bare spots on the sole of the hind foot, above the plantar pads. There is no dark line along the back; the throat gorget of Viverra is absent; and in the tail the spots only tend to form rings, which are not complete. The skull has an alisphenoid canal, and a large bulla as in the typical group of Viverra.

Genetta.[444]—The Genettes are smaller animals, with more elongated and slender bodies, and shorter limbs than the Civets. Skull elongated and narrow. Auditory bulla large, elongated, rounded at both ends. Teeth compressed and sharp pointed. The inner side of the third upper premolar has a tubercle not present in the previous genus, and the talon of the lower carnassial is larger. Pupil contracting to a linear aperture. Tail long, slender. Fur short and soft, spotted or cloudy. Under side of the tarso-metatarsus with a narrow longitudinal bald streak. No pouch for storing the secretion of the scent-gland. G. vulgaris, the common Genet (Fig. 233), is found in France south of the river Loire, Spain, South-Western Asia, and Africa from Barbary to the Cape. G. felina, senegalensis, tigrina, and pardalis are other named species, all African in habitat.

A few details (taken from Professor Mivart’s memoirs on the Æluroidea) of the anatomy of the soft parts of the Genet may be given as illustration of these parts in the Carnivora generally, and of this family and genus in particular. The salivary glands are shown in Fig. 19 (p. 56), and these conform to the general type prevalent in the Æluroidea. Thus there is a distinct zygomatic gland; the parotid with its (Steno’s) duct is well developed; and there is a small submaxillary gland. The stomach (Fig. 234), while conforming to the simple type characteristic of the Carnivora, is much larger than in the Cat; it is characterised by the presence of some strongly marked internal folds near the pyloric extremity, which stop suddenly at a point where the stomach makes an abrupt constriction and flexure. Beyond this point there are three other longitudinal folds; and the pyloric valve is small. The allied genera present modifications from this form of stomach. The cæcum (Fig. 235) is short, thick, and pointed. The liver (Fig. 236) much resembles that of the Cat, but differs in that the left lateral lobe is undivided, although having a small groove on its posterior or abdominal aspect, while the cystic fissure is less deep, and situated more to the right. The caudate lobe is relatively longer, has a deep concavity, and runs uninterruptedly into the Spigelian; the latter being relatively somewhat larger than in the Cat, with a deep groove dividing the proximal third from the distal two-thirds. In Viverra the right lateral and right central lobes are nearly equal in size. The variations in the form of the liver of the allied genera are detailed in Professor Mivart’s memoir. The brain of the Genet is shown in Fig. 23 (p. 71); the small depression d placed on the superior lateral gyrus appears to be the sole representative of the distinct crucial sulcus which distinguishes the brains of the Felidæ from those of all other members of the Æluroidea.

Prionodon.[445]—This and the following genus comprise the beautiful Linsangs (Fig. 238), which are distinguished from the preceding genera by the loss of the second upper molar, which is, however, very small in some of the Genets. In the present genus the ground colour is whitish or yellowish with brown or black markings, which may either form broad continuous patches across the hinder part of the body, or may be broken up into spots. The tail is very long, the limbs comparatively short, and the fur very short and close. The pollex and hallux are well developed; the claws are almost completely retractile; and the tarsus and metatarsus are completely haired. The pupil is round. The cæcum (Fig. 237) is remarkably small. This genus is exclusively Oriental, and comprises P. gracilis from Borneo, Java, and (?) Sumatra, P. pardicolor from Nipal, and P. maculosus from Tenasserim; the head and body of the latter measuring from 18 to 20 inches in length. Speaking of P. pardicolor, Mr. Hodgson observes that it is “equally at home on trees and on the ground; it dwells and breeds in the hollows of decayed trees. It is not gregarious at all, and preys chiefly upon small birds, which it is wont to pounce upon from the cover of the grass. The times of breeding are said to be February and August, and the litter to consist of two young, there being two litters each year.”

Poiana.[446]—This African genus, represented solely by one species, P. poënsis (Fig. 238), from Fernando Po, is very closely allied to the preceding, but the spots are smaller, and show no tendency to run into transverse bands or stripes, except in the region of the head and shoulder; while the sole of the foot has a narrow bald band running up towards the tarsus, as in Genetta. The length of the head and body is 38 inches, and that of the tail about 40 inches. It is probable that this animal should really be regarded as a slightly aberrant species of the genus Prionodon.

The five following genera differ in several important respects from all the preceding, and collectively constitute the Paradoxurine section of Professor Mivart. With the exception of one African form, they are mainly Oriental. In this section the auditory bulla is frequently in two portions, the posterior moiety in one case being unossified, and it is always much narrowed in front (Fig. 239). The palate (as in the figure) may be much produced behind the molars; and the teeth are often but slightly sectorial, and may be very small. The long tail is in most cases not ringed.

Paradoxurus.[447]—Dentition: i ³⁄₃, c ¹⁄₁, p ⁴⁄₄, m ²⁄₂; total 40. The blunt and rounded form of the cusps of the hinder premolar and the molar teeth distinguishes this genus from most of the members of the family. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 29-36. Head pointed in front. Ears small, rounded. Body long. Limbs moderate. Palms and soles almost entirely naked, and joining the foot-pads without the intervention of any hairy space. Claws completely retractile. Pupil vertical. Tail long, non-prehensile; in the Indian species without rings. The Paradoxures or Palm-Civets are less strictly carnivorous than the other members of the family. They are mostly about the size of the common Cat, or rather larger, and are partly arboreal in their habits. The species are rather numerous, and present considerable variations in the details of the form and size of their molar teeth; in only a few does the bony palate extend behind the molars. They are restricted geographically to Southern Asia and the Indo-Malayan archipelago. The best known species[448] are P. niger, P. hermaphroditus, P. jerdoni, P. aureus, P. grayi from India and Burma, P. philippinensis of the Philippines, P. larvatus of Southern China and Formosa, P. leucomystax of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo, and P. musschenbroeki of Celebes. The name Paradoxurus was applied from the mistaken notion that the tail was prehensile. Mr. Blanford[449] gives the following account of the habits of P. niger: “The common Palm-Civet, Tree-Cat, or Toddy-Cat, is a familiar animal in most parts of India, though, being thoroughly nocturnal in its habits, it is but rarely seen in the daytime. It is arboreal, passing the day generally in trees, either coiled up in the branches, or in a hole in the trunk, and in places where cocoa-nut palms are common it frequently selects one of them for a residence. Mango groves are also a favourite resort. It not unfrequently takes up its abode in the thatched roofs of houses; Jerdon found a large colony established in the rafters of his own house in Tellicheri. It even occurs in large towns; I have known of one being caught in the middle of Calcutta.”

Arctogale.[450]—This genus—represented only by A. trivirgata of Java, and A. leucotis of Burma, Tenasserim, Sumatra, Java, etc.—is chiefly distinguished from Paradoxurus by the extremely small size of the cheek-teeth (Fig. 239), which are often not in contact with one another; the upper carnassial being almost triangular in shape. Palate frequently convex longitudinally between the carnassials, and greatly produced behind the last molar, with a very narrow bony aperture of the posterior nares. The soles of the feet are still more naked than in Paradoxurus; and the pollex and hallux are more divergent. In A. leucotis the length of the head and body is 26·5 inches, and the tail 27 inches. In many specimens the three dorsal stripes are much less distinctly marked than in others, and tend to break up into spots; while the general coloration is considerably lighter.

Hemigale,[451] another modification of the Paradoxure type, contains one species, H. hardwickei, from Borneo and Malacca, an elegant-looking animal, smaller and more slender than the Paradoxures, of light gray colour, with transverse broad dark bands across the back and loins; the proximal portion of the tail being ringed. The tarsus is hairy. The general cranial characters are those of Paradoxurus, but the auditory bulla is ankylosed into a single piece.

Arctictis.[452]—Dentition: i ³⁄₃, c ¹⁄₁, p ⁴⁄₄, m ²⁄₂; total 40. The posterior upper molar and the first lower premolar very often absent. Cheek-teeth generally small and rounded, with a distinct interval between them, but formed generally on the same pattern as Paradoxurus. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 5, S 3, C 34. Body elongated. Head broad behind, with a small pointed face. Whiskers long and numerous. Ears small, rounded, but clothed with a pencil of long hairs. Eyes small. Limbs short. Soles and palms broad, entirely naked. Tail very long and prehensile; thickly covered with long hair. Fur long and harsh. Cæcum extremely small. But one species is known, A. binturong, the Binturong, an inhabitant of Southern Asia from Nipal through the Malay Peninsula to the islands of Sumatra and Java. Although structurally agreeing closely with the Paradoxures, its tufted ears, long, coarse, and dark hair, and prehensile tail give it a very different external appearance. It may be regarded as a very aberrant Paradoxure, connected, so far as dental characters are concerned, with Paradoxurus by means of Arctogale. The bony palate also extends considerably behind the last molar, as in the latter. The Binturong is slow and cautious in its movements, chiefly if not entirely arboreal, and appears to feed on vegetable as well as animal substances.

Nandinia[453] contains one species, N. binotata, a somewhat aberrant Paradoxure, from West Africa. It is rather smaller than the true Paradoxures, with smaller and more pointed molar teeth, and no cæcum. The wall of the hinder chamber of the auditory bulla remains through life unossified.

The dentition appears to be of a more decidedly carnivorous type than in the other members of the section.

Cynogale.[454]—This remarkable genus is regarded by Professor Mivart as representing a third section of the Viverrinæ; it contains one species, C. bennetti (described by S. Müller under the name of Potamophilus barbatus), from Borneo, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula. This is a curious Otter-like modification of the Viverrine type, having semiaquatic habits, both swimming in the water and climbing trees, living upon fish, crustacea, small mammals, birds, and fruit. The number and general arrangement of its teeth are as in Paradoxurus, but the premolars are peculiarly elongated, compressed, pointed and recurved, somewhat as in the Seals, though the molars are tuberculated. The head is elongated, the muzzle broad and depressed. Whiskers very long and abundant. Ears small and rounded. Toes short and slightly webbed at the base. Tail short, cylindrical, covered with short hair. Fur very dense and soft, of a dark brown colour, mixed with black and gray. Humerus without entepicondylar foramen.

Subfamily Herpestinæ.—Auditory bulla very prominent, and somewhat pear-shaped, the posterior chamber being large, rounded, and generally with its greatest prominence to the outer side. The anterior chamber considerably dilated, and produced into a short inferior wall to the auditory meatus, in which is a depression or vacuity just below the centre of the opening of the meatus. Sometimes this vacuity is continued into the meatus, forming a narrow fissure. The paroccipital process does not project beyond the bulla, but is spread out and lost (in adult animals) on its posterior surface. Toes straight; claws lengthened, exserted, non-retractile. No perineal glands. The dentition is always of a markedly sectorial type; and the orbit may be surrounded by bone. Very generally the anus opens into a sac-like depression. The majority of the genera are Ethiopian; the type genus alone extending into the Oriental and Palæarctic regions.

Herpestes.[455]—Dentition: i ³⁄₃, c ¹⁄₁, p ⁴⁄₄, sometimes ³⁄₃, m ²⁄₂; total 40 or 36. Teeth of molar series generally with strongly developed, sharply-pointed cusps. Skull elongated, constricted behind the orbits. Face short and compressed. Frontal region broad and arched. Postorbital processes of frontal and jugal bones well developed, generally meeting so as to complete the circle of the orbit behind. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 21-26. Head pointed in front. Ears short and rounded. Body very long and slender. Extremities short. Five toes on each foot, the first, especially that on the hind foot, very short. Toes free, or but slightly palmated. Palms generally naked. Distal portion of soles naked, under surface of tarsus and metatarsus usually clothed with hair, but considerable specific variation in this respect. Tail long or moderate, generally thick at the base, and sometimes covered with more or less elongated hair. The longer hairs covering the body and tail almost always annulated. This genus contains a very large number of animals commonly called Ichneumons, or in India Mungooses, varying in size from that of a large Cat down to a Weasel. They are widely distributed over the African continent and the southern parts of Asia, especially India and the Indo-Malayan archipelago, one species occurring also in Spain. They are mostly terrestrial in their habits, feeding on small mammals and birds, reptiles, especially snakes, eggs of birds and reptiles, and also insects. Some species are partially domesticated, being used to keep houses clear of rats, mice, and snakes. H. ichneumon was a sacred animal to the ancient Egyptians. They vary considerably in appearance, some, as H. galera and H. urva (Fig. 240), are larger and heavier, with stouter body, longer limbs, and stronger teeth. The common Indian Mungoose (H. mungo) is considerably smaller than the Egyptian form; its fur is of a pale gray colour, the hairs being largely white ringed, while the cheeks and throat are more or less reddish. Like the Egyptian species, it is frequently domesticated, and put to a similar use. It is especially serviceable in India as a serpent-killer, destroying not only the eggs and young of these creatures, but attacking without hesitation and killing the most venomous adult snakes. The fact that it invariably survives those encounters has led to the belief that it either enjoys immunity from the effects of snake-poison, or that after being bitten it has recourse, as the natives maintain, to the root of a plant as an antidote. Neither of these suppositions has stood the test of scientific examination, for it has been found that when actually bitten it falls a victim to the poison as rapidly as other mammals, while there is no trustworthy evidence of its seeking a vegetable antidote. The truth seems to be that the Mungoose, by its exceeding agility and quickness of eye, avoids the fangs of the snake while fixing its own teeth in the back of the reptile’s neck. One large species, believed to be from Africa, recently described as H. grandis, is remarkable for the extreme complexity of the cusps on the molars, and also for the absence of an entepicondylar foramen to the humerus; the latter feature also occurring in the allied H. albicaudatus. The Oriental H. urva (Fig. 246) is stated to be somewhat aquatic in habits, and to feed on frogs and crabs.