A Grammar of Colloquial Chinese, as Exhibited in the Shanghai Dialect

Obs. i. For a classification of these phrases v. Art. 227.

Obs. ii. Adjectives coming after verbs, with 得 tuh and 來 lé are best translated as adverbs; 做來勿好 tsú‘ lé veh ’hau, it is done badly； 寫來通極 ’siá lé t’ong giuh, it is written exactly to the purpose; 燕子飛起來頂快 ’íen ’tsz fí ’k’í lé ’ting k’wá‘, the swallow flies very swiftly; 幅子戴得齊整 mau‘ ’tsz tá‘ tuh zí tsung‘, he wears his hat properly.

345. Many verbs are used as prepositions. They are 從 zóng, 由 yeu, 到 tau‘, 連 líen, 朝 zau, 望 mong‘, 對 té‘, 上 ’zong, 下 ’hau. Examples of both uses are given.

• 由儂末哉 yeu nóng‘ meh tsé‘, it will be as you decide.
• 由那裏一條路 yeu ’á ’lí ih diau lú‘, by which way?
• 字眼要連下來 zz‘ ’ngan yau‘ líen ’au lé, words and expressions should be connected.
• 紙頭連筆全勿有 ’tsz deu líen pih dzén veh ’yeu, paper and pencil are both wanting.

Adverb as Substantive. 346. Adverbs of time and place precede substantives with 個 kú‘, just as one substantive precedes another.

• 此地個百姓 ’t’sz dí‘ kú‘ pák sing‘, people of this place.
• 什蓋能個人 seh ké‘ nung kú‘ niun, people of that sort.
• 明朝個事體測度勿出 ming tsau kú‘ zz‘ ’t’i t’suh doh veh t’seh, the things of to-morrow cannot be known by thinking.

Obs.先 síen, is an adverb in síen yau‘ ’tsung ’tung ’hau, 先要整頓 好, you must first make preparations, and an adjective in 出世最先 t’seh sz‘ tsûe‘ síen, he was born very early.

347. When the adverbs take case particles, they must be regarded as substantives.

• 轎子拉前頭 kiau‘ ’tsz ’lá zíen deu, the chair is before.

Adverb as Adjective. 348. The derivative adverbs like the pure adjectives, form the predicate of a proposition.

• 人是好好能個 niun ’zz ’hau ’hau nung kú‘, the man is good.

Or they qualify substantives.

• 做私底下個事體 tsú‘ sz ’tí ’áu kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í, to do underhand things.

Adjective as Adverb. 349. Some adjectives precede verbs, and must in such cases be regarded as adverbs.

• 多話兩句 tú wó‘ ’liáng kü‘, say a few sentences more.
• 好聽來些 ’hau t’ing lé, very pleasant to hear.
• 酒要少吃 ’tsieu yau‘ ’sau k’iuk, drink sparingly of wine.
• 好走進去 ’hau ’tseu tsing‘ k’í‘, you are quite at liberty to enter.

Obs. 前 zíen is an adjective in 前門 zíen mun, the front door; a post-position in 門前 mun zíen, before the door: and an adverb in 前兩日 zíen ’liáng nyih, a few days ago: 大 is usually an adjective, but in 大兩樣個 tú‘ ’liáng yáng‘ kú‘, very different and in 勿大哩 興 veh dá‘ ’lí h’iung‘, not very crowded, it is an adverb.

Postposition as Adjective. 350. When the locative case particles 外 ngá‘, 上 ’zong, 下 ’hau, 前 zíen, 後 ’heu, precede their words, they are adjectives. When they follow them, they are postpositions.

• 外國 ngá‘ kóh, foreign nations.
• 城外 zung ngá‘, outside the city.
• 下手 ’hau ’seu, an under workman.
• 手下 ’seu ’au, 手底下 ’seu ’tí ’au, another’s authority.
• 後門 ’heu mun, back door.
• 飯後 van‘ ’heu, after breakfast.

Obs. The words for north, south, east and west, are employed in the same manner, and may be regarded as postpositions. 北斗星 póh ’teu sing, north star; 江北 kong póh, north of the river; 浦東 p’u‘ tóng, east of the Hwáng-p’ú river. In the last two examples, 北 and 東 may be considered locative case particles.

Substantive as Adjective. 351. When one substantive qualifies another, it may be regarded as an adjective.

• 窵籠 ’tiau lóng, bird-cage.
• 牛棚 nieu báng, cow shed.
• 花園 hwó yön, flower garden.
• 玻璃窻 pú lí t’song, glass window. (See Art. 174).

Section 3. Government of words in groups or combinations.

Inseparable groups. 352. In the closest kind of combinations, when words of different parts of speech form a dissyllabic word, one of them loses its proper grammatical validity by becoming a syllabic appendage to the other.

a. Thus, 交 kiau, to join, in the noun 交界 kiau ká‘, a boundary, has not the property of governing a substantive, that belongs to it in 相交朋友總要實際 siáng kiau báng ’yeu ’tsong yau‘ zeh tsí‘, in treating friends you must be true. So also other verbs, as—

• 應 yung‘, to correspond, in 應騐 yung‘ níen‘, agreement with prediction. (Sometimes also to agree, etc.)
• 容 yúng, to allow, in 容易꜄ yúng í‘, easy.
• 過 kú‘, to pass, in 過失 kú‘ seh, a fault (cf. transgression).

b. In the same manner 功 kóng, work, 形 yung, form, and 氣 k’í‘, anger, in the following examples are not nouns, since they are neither in the nominative or accusative, or any other case. They simply add their primitive sense to the verbs they assist to form.

• 勿會成功太平 veh wé‘ zung kóng t’á‘ bing, he cannot establish peace.
• 形容出來 yung yóng t’seh lé, bring into visible form.
• 有啥要動氣我 ’yeu sá‘ yau‘ ’dóng k’í ’ngú, why are you angry with me?

c. Similarly, adjectives in composition, while retaining their etymological sense, lose their individuality, and cease to qualify substantives, or to form a predicate to a subject.

• 討一個大娘子 ’t’au ih kú‘ dú‘ niáng ’tsz, to take a wife.
• 燒小菜 sau ’siau t’sé‘, to cook vegetables.
• 定牢個生意 ting‘ lau kú‘ ’tsû í‘, to fix one’s determination.
• 保全萬物 ’pau dzíen van‘ veh, to preserve all things.

Obs. In the first example 大 great is prefixed to the word for wife, independently of any second wife, and is usually equivalent to niáng ’tsz. In the third 牢 firm is joined with 定 ting‘, and the two words together govern the following substantive.

353. So in larger groups, when words of different parts of speech combine, the predominant character of the group is communicated to words, which alone have quite another kind of force; e.g. if 針 tsun, needle; 線 síen‘, thread; 情 zing, feeling, represent actions not things in the sentences—

• 女人認眞針線紡織 ’nü niun niung‘-tsun tsun-síen‘-’fong-tsuh, women diligently sew, spin and weave.
• 甘心情願 kén sing zing niön‘, ready for and wishing.

354. When words combine to form a new compound term, different in sense from both of them, their grammatical validity is lost, and the new phrase is recognized in its entirety as a noun, verb, etc. according to its meaning. Thus, 引 ’yung, to lead, and 線 síen‘, thread, form the compound 引線 ’yung síen‘, a needle; 方 fong, square, and 便 píen‘ convenient, form 方便 fong bíen‘, alms; 裁 dzé, to cut with scissors and 縫 vóng‘, a seam, form 裁縫 dzé vóng, tailor; 招 tsau, to call, and 軍 kiün, an army, form 招軍 tsau kiün, a trumpet.

• 開路先鋒 k’é lú‘ síen fóng, a herald.
• 牢頭禁子 lau deu kiun‘ ’tsz, jailor.
• 地保 tí‘ ’pau, village bailiff.
• 代書 té sû, notary.

355. Coordinate words having the same grammatical power, arranged in groups of from two to five or even more characters, form a numerous class. In regard to the laws of position, the whole group is treated as a single noun or verb, or adjective as the case may be. In the examples, a hyphen connects the coordinate words.

• 伊個行事, 全是仁義道德 í‘ kú‘ háng-zz‘, dzén ’zz zun-ní‘-’dau-tuh, his actions are all based on benevolence, rectitude, reason and virtue.
• 做親個時候, 夫妻兩個板要拜天地神明 tsú‘ t’sing kú‘ zz-k’í‘, fú-t’sí ’liáng kú‘ ’pan yau‘ pá‘ t’íen-dí‘-zun-ming, at the time of marriage, the husband and wife must worship heaven, earth and the inferior deities.
• 大細有啥事體, 爺娘要問醫卜星相要好勿要好 tú‘ sí‘ ’yeu sá‘ zz‘ ’t’í, yá-niáng yau‘ mun‘ í-póh-sing-siáng‘ yau‘ ’hau veh yau‘ ’hau, if there be anything that concerns their children, the parents will ask the doctor, the diviner, the astrologer, and the physiognomist, if all will be well.
• 勿能用之器皿傢生, 測量伊個長闊高深 veh nung yúng‘ tsz k’í‘-’ming-ká-sáng, t’seh liáng, í‘ kú‘ dzang-k’weh-kau-sun, you cannot by taking instruments measure its length, breadth, height and depth. (four adj. here form one substantive, viz. dimensions.)
• 人勿好担兇來, 待之馬牛羊三樣中牲, 因備人用 niun veh ’hau tan h’iúng lé, de‘ tsz ’mó-nieu-yáng san yáng‘ tsóng sáng, yung bé‘ niun yúng‘, men ought not to be cruel in treating the three animals, horse, cow and sheep, because they are useful to man.
• 人嘸啥事體個辰光, 担琴碁書畫來, 消悶過日 niun m sá‘ zz‘ ’tí kú‘ zun kwong, tan‘ giun-gí-sû-wó‘ lé‘ siau mun‘ kó‘ nyih, when men have nothing to do, they take to the harp, chess, writing and painting, to dissipate care and pass away the time.
• 被褥鋪盖 pí‘-niók-p’ú-ké‘, coverlid and mattrass, for bedding.
• 鞋襪衣帽 há-mah-í-mau‘, shoes, stockings, clothes and hat.
• 順從 zun‘-zóng, to yield to and follow.
• 等待 ’tung-dé‘, wait for.
• 骨頭指節 kweh-deu-tsz tsih, bones, limbs and joints.
• 廣大 ’kwong dú‘, wide and great.
• 牢硬 lau ngáng‘, firm and hard.
• 播揚奧妙個道理 pú‘-yáng au‘-miau‘ kú‘ ’tau-’lí, to propagate mysterious and wonderful doctrines.

356. Another numerous class of compounds consist of words, which, while helping to form a larger group, retain a grammatical relation to each other.

• 有一種爲非作歹個人 ’yeu ih ’tsóng wé-fí-tsok-’té kú‘ niun, there is a sort of vicious mischief-making men.
• 一眼嘸情嘸義個 ih ’ngan m-dzing-m-ní‘ kú‘, quite destitute of feeling and principle.
• 正管偷閑懶惰 tsung‘ ’kwén t’eu han ’lan dú‘, they do nothing but waste time and be lazy.
• 認差之假佯頭發囘往心 niung‘ t’só tsz ’ká yá deu fah wé ’wong sing, he was misled by his pretend change of mind.
• 領之傳杯弄盞個朋友出去 ’ling tsz dzén pé lóng‘ ’tsan kú‘ páng ’yeu t’seh k’í‘, he led out his friends who were his drinking companions.
• 嘸沒出典 m meh t’seh ’tíen, has on classical authority.

Obs. i. 出 governs 典 ancient books, and the two words together form a substantive in the objective case, after the verb m meh. The whole is equivalent 勿上書本 veh ’zong sû ’pun, it is not used in books.

Obs. ii. In phrases of this sort, we have government within government. A transitive verb with its regimen, may form part of a group, which is an elongated adjective, qualifying the following noun. Compare in English, such phrases as “a luxurious, do-nothing life.”

Obs. iii. Verbs with their regimen are freely used as adjectives, and connected by means of 箇, with the following noun; e.g. 養蠶咾種茶葉個百 姓, 今年苦惱者 yáng‘ zén lau tsóng‘ dzó yih kú‘ pká síng‘, kiun níen ’k’ú ’nau ’tsé, the silk-worm breeders and tea cultivators will this year suffer greatly. So also other combinations, 拉廣東做個 物事, 全是巧個 ’lá ’kwong tóng tsú‘ kú‘ meh zz‘, dzén ’zz ’k’iau kú‘, things made at Canton are all ingeniously worked.

357. In many cases, while there is a common grammatical character belonging to the whole group, only part of the constituent words give the sense. Thus in 苦楚 ’k’ú ’t’sú, miserable; 福氣 fók k’í‘, happiness; 恩典 un ’tíen‘ favour; the second word in each has no influence on the sense. So also 相 in 相信 siáng sing‘, to believe in, does not in colloquial usage retain the sense of reciprocity. To give that idea, an adverb such as 大家 tá‘ ká, must be prefixed.

358. Some terms originally consist of two syllables, which are written separately, only because the Chinese mode of writing requires each character to be the sign of a monosyllable.

• 吩咐 fun fú, to command.
• 須張 sü tsáng,[1] to nurse (c).
• 叮囑 ting tsóh, give directions.

Obs. Such words as these are construed as verbs, just as if they were monosyllabic words.

Separable groups. 359. Those combinations that admit of the insertion of other words, so as to lengthen the group will now be illustrated.

a. Those that consist of two coordinate words, admit of a qualifying or governing term being applied to each word.

• 飛禽走獸 fí giun ’tseu seu‘, birds and beasts.
• 歡天喜地 hwén t’íen ’h’í dí‘, exceedingly pleased.
• 通文達理 t’óng vun ta ’lí, thoroughly understand literary composition.
• 心滿意足 sing ’mén í‘ tsóh, satisfied.
• 咬牙切齒 ’ngau ngá t’sih ’t’sz, grinding the teeth in pain.
• 囘心轉意 wé sing ’tsén í‘, to change one’s mind.
• 思前想後 sz zíen ’siáng heu‘, thinks of the past and future.
• 循規蹈矩 dzing kwé‘ dau‘ ’kü, follow the rule of propriety.
• 求神拜佛 kieu zun pá‘ veh, pray to spirits and worship Buddha.
• 早思暮想 ’tsau sz mú‘ ’siáng, meditate early and late.

b. The groups formed by the numeral particles admit the insertion of adjectives and adjective phrases, between those particles and their substantives. Material nouns sometimes take their auxiliary after them.

• 一根長銅絲 ih kun dzáng dóng sz, a long piece of brass wire.
• 一片大鐵片 ih p’íen‘ dú‘ t’ih p’íen‘, a large piece of iron.
• 一隻會白話個鸚𪃿 ih tsáh wé‘ báh wó‘ kú‘ áng kú, a talking parrot.
• 一根長竹頭 ih kun dzáng tsóh deu, a long stick of bamboo.
• 一隻花狗 ih tsáh hwó ’keu, a spotted dog.
• 一張厚紙 ih tsáng ’heu ’tsz, a thick sheet of paper.
• 一張薄紙張 ih tsáng bóh ’tsz tsáng, a thin piece of paper.
• 一枝有鋒鋩個筆 ih tsz ’yeu fóng mong kú‘ pih, a pencil that has a point.

c. When a group consists of a transitive verb and its regimen (which sometimes answer to a single verb in English), auxiliary words come between the verb, and its object.

• 上之檔者 ’zong tsz tong‘ ’tsé, he has been entrapped.
• 專之權咾殺脱之皇帝者 tsén tsz giön lau sah t’eh tsz wong tí‘ ’tsé, relying on his influence, he killed the emperor.
• 惹有見識個笑 ’zá ’yeu kíen‘ suh kú‘ siau‘, causing the laughter of those who are intelligent.
• 叨儂光嗄 t’au nóng‘ kwong au, I beg your favour (light).

Obs. When a verb and adjective are combined, the tense particle follows the adjective; e.g. 繩放鬆之末好 zung fong‘ sóng tsz meh ’hau, it would be better to slacken the rope.

d. In the verb groups of direction and motion, the substantive governed is sometimes inserted after the principal verb, sometimes between the second and third auxiliaries when there are two, and sometimes it is placed at the end.

• 同壺滴水下來 tóng ú tih ’sz ’au lé, brazen urn dropping water.
• 放轎子下來 fong‘ giau‘ ’tsz ’au lé, let the chair down.
• 放我開來 fong‘ ’ngú k’é lé, let me go.
• 赶兵出去 kûn ping t’seh k’í‘, drive out soldiers.
• 挑担出來 t’iau tan t’seh lé, carry out a load.
• 打馬前去 ’táng ’mó zíen k’í‘, drive a horse forward.
• 併傢生攏來 ’ping ká sáng ’lóng lé, collect domestic articles.
• 再活別人轉來 tsé‘ weh bih niun ’tsén lé, call a man to life again.
• 轉水進去 ’tsén ’sz tsing‘ k’í‘, pour in water.
• 殺進城來 sah tsing‘ zung lé, enter the city fighting.
• 赶出狗來 kûn t’seh ’keu lé, drive out dogs.
• 担出衣裳來 tan t’seh í zong lé, bring clothes out.
• 反轉手來 ’fan ’tsén ’seu lé, turn one’s hand over.
• 旋轉盤來 zíen‘ ’tsén bén lé, turn the tray round.
• 撐開船來 t’sáng ké‘ zén lé, pole the boat away.
• 推開窻來 t’é k’é t’song lé, push the window open.
• 行起風來 háng ’k’í fóng le, take the wind to work the boat.
• 擎起刀來 kiung ’k’í tau lé, lift up a knife.
• 放起炮來 fong‘ ’k’í p’au‘ lé, commence firing cannon.

Obs. Rarely the nominative is placed after the verb it governs, 走人下來 ’tseu niun ’au lé, men are coming down; 吹風進去 t’sz fóng tsing‘ k’i‘, wind blows in.

e. Negative verb groups sometimes admit of an adverb qualifying the principal verb, and coming immediately after it.

• 認大勿出 niun‘ dá‘ veh t’seh, I scarcely recognize him.
• 話大勿來 wó‘ dá‘ veh lé, I cannot well talk.
• 看大勿見 k’ön‘ dá‘ veh kíen‘, I can scarcely see it.
• 吃大勿落 k’iuh dá‘ veh loh, I cannot well eat.

f. Verb groups with the affirmative and negative particles, also admit the objective case after the principal verb.

• 呌伊勿出 kiau‘ í veh t’seh, I do not know its name.
• 甩伊勿開 hwah í veh k’é, I cannot throw him off.
• 拔伊勿起 pah í veh ’k’í, I cannot pull it up.

Obs. In many cases, the object comes after the whole group; e.g. 當勿 住大兵 tong veh dzû‘ dá‘ ping, he cannot resist the great army; 做勿動 生活 tsú‘ veh ’dóng sáng weh, I cannot do any work.

g. Repeated verbs with the tentative 看 k’ön‘, take their accusative case before 看 k’ön‘.

• 問問伊看 mun‘ mun‘ í k’ön‘, ask him and see.
• 做做文章看 tsú‘ tsú‘ vun tsáng k’ön‘, write an essay as a specimen.

Section 4. On Repetition.

365. When verbs are repeated, it is for rhythmical reasons, and for the sake of alliteration. In addition to the examples given in Art. 231, the following will serve to exhibit the use of these seeming tautologies.

a. Single verbs are repeated with or without a regimen.

• 要買點飯吃吃 yau‘ ’má ’tíen van‘ k’iuh k’iuh, I wish to buy a little rice to eat.
• 我不過澆澆花咾, 修修丫枝 ’ngú peh kú‘ kiau kiau hwó lau, sieu sieu au tsz, I am just watering the flowers, and pruning the branches of the trees.

b. In a verb group of two, the second word is often repeated.

• 孛相相 peh siáng‘ siáng‘, rambling for amusement.
• 笑嘻嘻 siau‘ h’í h’í, laughing.
• 魚拉水裏活動動 ng ’lá ’sz ’lí weh ’dóng ’dóng, the fish are swimming actively in the water.
• 遊嬉嬉咾, 勿肯用必 yeu h’í h’í lau, veh ’k’ung yúng‘ sing, he rambles about amusing himself, and will not attend to anything.
• 哭漓漓 k’óh lí lí, he is weeping.

c. Many groups of four contain a single repeated verb.

• 打敗之咾紛紛各散 ’táng bá‘ tsz lau fun fun koh san‘, being conquered, they divided and were all scattered.
• 打贏之咾歸來得意揚揚 ’tang yung tsz lau kü lé tuh í‘ yáng yáng, having conquered, he came back satisfied and elated.
• 衣袂飄飄 í mé‘ p’iau p’iau, the shirts of clothes blowing about.
• 星光閃閃 sing kwong sén‘ sén‘, the star-light twinkles.
• 枝葉洽洽 tsz ih yah yah, the branches and leaves are waving.

d. Many verb groups of two are extended by the repetition of each word.

• 事體定定當當 zz‘ t’í ting‘ ding‘ tong‘ tong‘, the thing is brought to a settlement.
• 勿必疑疑惑惑 veh pih ní ní óh óh, you need not suspect.
• 牙齒活活落落 ngá ’t’sz weh weh loh loh, his teeth are shaking and falling out.
• 走𨅓跎之咾興興夯夯 ’tseu sá dú tsz lau h’iung h’iung hong hong, he has walked himself tired and is panting for breath.
• 碗盞相碰响咾歴歴碌碌 ’wén ’tsan siáng báng‘ ’h’iáng lau líh líh lóh lóh, the cups and saucers are falling together and making a noise.

e. Frequently in repeated groups of four, the constituent words alternate.

• 打算打算也勿對景 ’táng sön‘ ’táng sön‘ ’á veh té‘ ’kiung, with all his meditating, he cannot satisfy himself.
• 留步留歩勿要送者 lieu bú‘ lieu bú‘ veh yau‘ sóng‘ ’tsé, stay, stay, do not escort me out.
• 物事好吃有味有味 meh zz‘ ’hau k’iuh ’yeu mí‘ ’yeu mí‘, this thing is very nice, it has a fine taste.

f. The verb is repeated alternately with two accusatives.

• 總要勞心勞力 ’tsóng yau‘ lau sing lau lih, you must use your mind and all your efforts.
• 年成好者謝天謝地 níen zung ’hau ’tsé ziá‘ t’íen ziá‘ dí‘, it is a good year, and we must thank heaven and earth for it.
• 爲皇爲帝 wé wong wé tí‘, to be an emperor.
• 做官做府 tsú‘ kwén tsú‘ ’fú, to be a mandarin.

366. With regard to their syntax, groups consisting of repetitions frequently form separate clauses of a sentence, but not exclusively so. They also like other groups, obey the laws of position of section 1 in relation to neighbouring words, and in their internal structure, and are construed as adjectives, verbs, or adverbs according to their particular character and use as a whole.

a. As adjective, whether forming a predicate or in apposition.

• 做一個人總要正正派派 tsu‘ ih kú‘ niun ’tsóng yau‘ tsung‘ tsung‘ p’á‘ p’á‘, as a man, you must be correct in conduct.
• 人住勒拉花花世界, 大有福氣拉 niun dzû‘ leh ’lá hwó hwó sz‘ kú‘, dú‘ ’yeu fok kí‘ ’lá, man living in a beautiful world, has great happiness.

b. As verb.

• 看看許多人跟拉 k’ön‘ k’ön‘ tú hau‘ niun kun ’lá, see there is a great number of persons following.

c. As verb.

• 逃走脱者就快快活活接到船上 tau ’tseu t’eh ’tsé dzieu‘ k’á‘ k’á‘ weh weh tsih tau‘ zén long‘, when he had escaped, they gladly received him to the boat.
• 明明亮亮收受徒弟 ming ming liáng‘ liáng‘ seu ’zeu dú dí‘, they openly received disciples.
• 詳詳細細考究實骨子那能個 ziáng ziáng sí‘ sí‘ ’k’au kieu‘ zeh kweh ’tsz ná‘ nung kú‘, carefully examine how it truly is.

Obs. Groups of four, whether formed by repeated words or not, very commonly fall into separate clauses; e.g. 文理嘸啥好草草不工 vun ’lí m sá‘ ’hau, ’t’sau ’t’sau peh kóng, it is not at all well written, but coarse and unpolished.

Section 5. Order in groups.

367. There are various principles of arrangement in the words of a group. A group of four (1) may contain in itself an entire sentence; e.g. 懂呢勿懂 ’tóng ní veh ’tóng, do you understand? (2) or it may consist of verbs and their regimen, nouns and their adjectives, or other combinations of the parts of speech; e.g. 伸冤理枉 sun yön ’lí ’wong, to redress injuries. (3) Repetition direct and alternate, forms many short phrases into longer groups, (4.) The principle of arrangement in many groups is, the order of nature, species being placed before genus, and the whole before its parts. (5.) The constituent words may be coordinate in meaning, and alike in grammatical character.

In addition to these varieties of structure, there are also mixed groups in which repetition for instance forms one part, and words combined grammatically, another; e.g. 念念不忘 nian‘ nian‘ peh vong, think of constantly.

368. Complete sentences are here placed with the other groups, because they fall into regular forms, and obey the laws of rhythm in a manner similar the fixed phrases of two, three, four or more words here referred to. Hence the predominance of short pithy sentences in common conversation.

• 有啥勿懂 ’yeu sá‘ veh ’tong, why should I not understand?
• 勿曾曉得 veh zung ’h’iau tuh, I do not know.
• 洋價大者 yáng ká‘ dú‘ ’tsé, the price of the dollar is high.
• 那能辦法 ná‘ nung‘ pan‘ fah, how should we proceed?
• 要好就好 yau‘ ’hau dzieu‘ ’hau, if you want it good, it is at once good.

Obs. The order of the words in these phrases is regulated by the rules of Part III, section 1, and the sections on propositions.

369. Many groups have an internal syntactical arrangement, and they are so numerous, that although some examples have already been given, more will here appended. They may be divided into (a), those in which there is a repetition of the idea, and (b) where there is none.

• 嘴尖舌快 ’tsz tsíen zeh k’wá‘, sharp lips and tongue.
• 靑天白日 t’sing t’íen bah nyih, clear sky and bright sun.
• 忘恩負義 vong un veu‘ ní‘, forget kindness.
• 欺天瞞地 k’í t’íen mén dí‘, deceive heaven and earth.
• 東倒西歪 tóng ’tau sí hwá, all is in disorder.
• 話長話短 wó‘ dzáng wó‘ ’tön, very loquacious.
• 搬嘴弄舌 pén ’tsz lóng‘ zeh, fond of using the tongue.
• 呑飢忍餓 t’un kí ’niun ngú‘, to endure hunger.
• 人面獸心 niun míen‘ seu‘ sing, in face a man, but in heart a wild beast.
• 苦口良言 ’k’ú ’k’eu líang íen, advice bitter but salutary.
• 山珍海味 san tsun ’hé mí‘, delicacies from the mountain and the sea.
• 指東話西 ’tsz tóng wó‘ sí, advising this and then that.
• 藏頭露尾 dzong deu lú‘ ’ví, act contrary to propriety.
• 喜富怕窮 ’h’í fú‘ p’ó‘ gióng, pleased with riches but fearing poverty.
• 損人利己 ’sun niun lí‘ ’kí, rob others to enrich one’s-self.
• 呼兄喊第 hú h’iúng han‘ dí‘, to call brothers.
• 或三或四 woh san wóh sz‘, sometimes this and sometimes that.
• 引經據典 ’yung kiung kü‘ ’tíen, to cite books and appeal to the classics.
• 吹哥唱曲 t’sz kú t’song‘ k’ióh, to play airs and sing songs.

370. Passing over repetition groups, as already sufficiently illustrated, some examples will be given of those in which several words coordinate in sense are placed in proximity. In many instances such words as express relative superiority stand first.

• 風雲雷雨 fóng yün lé ’ü, wind, clouds, thunder and rain.
• 雨雪霜露 ’ü sih song lú‘, rain, snow, hail and dew.
• 賢良方正 híen liáng fong tsung‘, the wise, good, noble and upright.
• 柴米油鹽 zá ’mí yeu íen, fuel, rice, oil and salt.
• 荳穀米麥 teu‘ kóh ’mí máh, beans, rice and wheat.
• 始終本末 ’sz tsóng ’pun meh, beginning and end, origin and conclusion.
• 牛羊犬馬 nieu, yáng, ’k’iön, ’mó, cattle, sleep, dogs and horses.
• 君親師友 kiün t’sing sz ’yeu, king, parents, teacher and friends.
• 磚瓦石灰 tsén ’ngó záh hwé, bricks, tiles and lime.
• 禽獸昆蟲 kiun seu‘ k’wun dzóng, birds, beasts and insects.
• 瓶甏罐頭 ping báng kwén deu, pitchers, pots and pans.
• 耳目口鼻 ’rh móh ’k’eu bih, ear eyes, mouth and nose.
• 魚鳞蝦蟹 ng ling hön ’há, fish, crabs and shrimps.
• 金銀銅錫 kiun niun dóng t’ih sih, gold, copper, copper, iron and tin.
• 解釋 ’ká seh, explain.
• 審斷 ’sun tön‘, to judge.
• 離散 lí san‘, to be scattered.
• 偷竊 t’eu t’sih, to steal.
• 圓滿 yön ’mén, round & full.
• 端方 tön fong, upright.
• 紡織 ’fong tsuh, spinning and weaving.

Obs. On presenting these examples to a Fuh-kien literary man, it was found that half of the groups were in use in his dialect; of the remainder, more than half were partially the same with collocations familiar to him, while the rest were entirely different.

371. Species invariably precedes genus, and matter form, in groups formed of words thus related.

• 筆筒好插個 pih dóng ’hau t’sah kú‘, you can stick it in the pencil holder.
• 嘸沒筆帽子 m meh pih mau ’tsz, there is no top-case to the pencil.
• 蚊帳破個 mun tsáng, p’ú‘ kú‘, the mosquito curtain is torn.
• 扇骨綠漆個 sén‘ kweh lók t’sih kú‘, the frame of the fan is painted green.
• 鐵店裏打拉個 t’ih tíen‘ lí ’táng ’lá kú‘, it was made in the blacksmith’s shop.
• 石馬 sáh ’mó, stone horse.
• 蒲扇 pú sén‘, broad-leaf fans.
• 砂皮 só bí, sand paper.
• 瓦粒屑 ’ngó lih sih, earthenware fragments.

Obs. i. Substance precedes accident or attribute, and the whole its part. This is sometimes the same with the proposition immediately above, genus being only such part of species as happens to belong commonly to several objects. We may fix our attention on either word in the compound indifferently, considering it as the essence, while the other is the accident. Thus, 屋基 óh kí, foundation of a house; 屋頂 hó ’ting, house roof, are parts of the appellative substantive house. So, if speaking of the articles into which bamboo is manufactured, the second word in 竹牌 tsóh bá, piece of flattened bamboo; 竹簾 tsóh líen, bamboo window-blinds; 竹紙 tsóh ’tsz, bamboo paper, is in each case that which expresses form, while the first describes the material.

The latter may be viewed as accidental to the former, or if preferred, the second word may called genus, while the first is considered as limiting it to a particular species.

Obs. ii. In conformity with the principle, that the word in which the substance of the noun inheres should stand first, the auxiliary appendages 頭 deu, 子 ’tsz, 處 t’sû‘, 法 fah follow their words; e.g. 飯嘸尋處 van‘ m zing t’sû‘, there is no way of getting a living; 寫法總有個 ’siá fah ’tsóng ’yeu kú‘, there must be some mode of writing it.

Obs. iii. The auxiliary substantives and numeral particles appropriated to particular nouns, when they follow their words without a numeral, exemplify the same law; e.g. 白話裏向勿要加出多許書句 páh wó‘ ’lí h’iáng‘ veh yau‘ ká t’seh tú hau‘ sû kü‘, do not mingle so many book sentences in what you say.

Obs. iv. In double substantives formed partly with a verb, the verb as giving the species stands first; e.g. 算盤 sön‘ bén, counting board; 印板 yun‘ ’pan, printing blocks; 話柄 wó ping‘, a bon mot (See Art. 113.).

Obs. v. Many inseparable dissyllabic substantives, in which the distinction of matter and form is not obvious in their daily use, if viewed etymologically may be noticed to have the same order; e.g. 文章 vun tsáng, literary compositions; 地方 tí‘ fong, a place. The word giving the matter stands in each case first.

372. If the action be gradual in a compound verb, the word first in time is first in order. The word that concludes the action comes last.

• 担來銷化 tan lé siau hwó‘, to take and burn.
• 燈點完者 tung ’tíen wén ’tsé, the lamp is burnt out.
• 撥拉賊匪打輸 peh ’lá zuh fí‘ ’táng sû, he was defeated by the rebels.

Obs. i. Most of the auxiliary particles occurring in compound verbs follow the principal word; v. Art. 217, 222, but 打 ’táng, and such adverbs as help to form compound verbs precede the principal words; e.g. 打緝打緝看 ’táng t’sih ’táng t’sih k’ön‘, make inquiries.

Obs. ii. The auxiliary verbs of power, forming a potential mode, precede their verbs. 勿會白話 veh wé‘ báh wó‘, he cannot talk; 勿能去 veh nung k’í‘, he cannot go. In English, there are also auxiliaries of this kind preceding other verbs in apposition, without the sign of the infinitive intervening; e.g. may, can.

Variation in Order. 373. The components of some groups admit of more than one mode of arrangement. The following may be used in a direct or inverted order.

• 來往 lé ’wong, communication.
• 氣力 k’í‘ lih, strength.
• 笑談 siau‘ dan, laughing and talking.
• 征戰 tsung tsén‘ to fight.
• 週身上下 tseu sun ’zong ’au, the whole body (or 下上).
• 歡喜 hwen ’h’í, pleased.
• 勿論損益 veh lun‘ ’sun yuh, without regarding whether it be injurious or beneficial.
• 小大 ’siao dú‘, small, great.
• 黑白 huh, báh, black, white.
• 南北東西 nén póh tóng sí, south, north, east and west.
• 靈魂 ling wung, the soul.
• 彎轉 wan ’tsén, to turn around.
• 長短 dzáng ’tön, long and short.

Obs. The number of groups variable in order, is comparatively extremely small. The number of cases in English, where one particular order of coordinate words is maintained, is by no means small; e.g. long and happy reign; far and near; kings and queens.

374. The following principles of arrangement may be distinguished in the apposition of verbs.

a. The auxiliaries of the future tense, and the imperative and potential moods precede their verb. 要 yau‘, 會 wé‘, 能 nung.

• 總要去 ’tsóng yau‘ k’í‘, you must go.
• 我會寫 ’ngú wé‘ ’siá, I can write.
• 勿能來 veh nung lé, he cannot come.
• 勿要來 veh yau‘ lé, I do not wish to come; or do not come.
• 勿會話要來 veh zung wó‘ yau‘ lé, I did not say, I should come.
• 儂也要來 nóng‘ ’á yau‘ lé, you must come.

b. When the object of a verb is an action, it is expressed by a verb in Chinese, instead of a verbal derivative, or infinitive, or gerund form, such as would be used in languages having grammatical forms.

• 勿免死 veh ’míen ’sí, cannot avoid dying.
• 勿想吃 veh ’siáng k’iuh, I do not think of eating.
• 勿算逃走 veh sön‘ dau ’tseu, not to be regarded as flight.
• 勿敢做 veh ’kén tsú‘, he does not dare do it.
• 幾時想修 ’kí zz ’siáng sieu, when do you think of reforming.
• 打算謀反 ’táng sön‘ meu ’fan, to meditate a revolt.
• 愛吃酒 é‘ k’iuk ’tsieu, to be fond of drinking wine.

c. The auxiliary verbs expressive of direction and motion, beginning and completion, etc. follow the principal verb.

• 買進來 ’má tsing‘ lé, to buy in.
• 抱進抱出 ’pau tsing‘ ’pau t’seh, to carry in and out in one’s arms.

d. Priority in time often determines the order of verbs.

• 我去送 ’ngú k’í‘ sóng‘, I will go and present it.
• 要來相幫 yau‘ lé siáng pong, you must come and assist.
• 勸化世界上人 k’iön‘ hwó‘ sz‘ ká‘ long‘ niung, to exhort and convert mankind.
• 打殺別人 ’táng sah bih niun, to beat persons to death.

e. Coordinate verbs.

• 保護𩻴寡孤獨 ’pau ú‘ kwan kwó kú dóh, to protect and save widows, orphans, and those who have no relatives.

Section 6. Simple Propositions.

375. The simplest sentence is that in which there is a single word, forming the subject (主 ’tsû), and another the predicate (賓 ping). The subject always precedes.

• 馬來 ’mó lé, a horse comes.
• 天熱 t’íen nyih, the weather is hot.

Obs. i. Occasionally the predicate precedes, 出會 t’seh wé‘, the procession is out; 落水 lok ’sz, the tide is falling. These forms may also be explained as impersonal verbs with an accusative.

Obs. ii. An adjective forms of itself a complete predicate, and usually has no copula to connect it with the preceding nominative. 桃子熟者 tau ’tsz zók ’tsé, the peaches are ripe.

376. The simple proposition in its full form has also a copula.

• 是吾作主 ’zz ngú tsok ’tsû, I act for myself.
• 海裏個水是深個 ’hé ’lí kú‘ ’sz ’zz sun kú‘, the water of the sea is deep.
• 天來得熱 t’íen lé tuh nyih, the weather is hot.

Obs. When the predicate is a verb, the copula may be always considered as included in it. It is when the predicate is an adjective that a vacuum becomes obvious to a foreign ear.

377. The subject may consist of a substantive, or a substantive group, a pronoun, a verb or a verb group, or adverbs of place and time, construed as nouns.

• 日頭勿出來 nyih deu veh t’seh lé, the sun does not come out.
• 菴堂寺院秃有燒香 én dong zz‘ yön‘ t’oh ’yeu ’sau h’iáng, in all convents and monasteries there is incense burning.
• 第個是好點個 tí‘ kú‘ ’zz ’hau ’tíen kú‘, this is better.
• 買是勿能 ’má ’zz veh nung, to buy is impossible.
• 挑咾扛勿會個 t’iau lau kong veh wé‘ kú‘, to act as porter alone or with others, is what I cannot do.
• 此地有雪 ’t’sz dí‘ ’yeu sih, it snows here.
• 明朝初六 ming tsau t’sú lóh, to-morrow is the sixth.

Obs. i. Sometimes the subject is understood; e.g. 總要立定主意 ’tsóng yau‘ lih ding‘ ’tsû í‘, (you) must be resolute.

Obs. ii. Adjectives also sometimes form a predicate. 好有好報, ’hau ’yeu ’hau pau‘, goodness has a good reward; 善咾惡總要辨出來 ’zén lau oh ’tsóng yau‘ bíen‘ t’seh lé, virtue and vice must be distinguished.

Obs. iii. Any word that qualifies a noun may be removed from its place in apposition, and become a predicate. Thus, 第座房子是拉個 tí‘ zú‘ vong ’tsz ’zz ’lá kú‘, this house is the right one, may become, 是第座房子 ’zz dí‘ zú‘ vong ’tsz, it is this one; 兩條橋有, ’liáng diau giau ’yeu, there are two bridges, or 橋有兩條 kiau ’yeu ’liáng diau, of bridge there are two.

378. When the copula is used, it takes the forms of 是 ’zz, 得 tuh, 來得 lé tuh, and 來 lé before adjective predicates, while 做 tsu‘, and in some groups 爲 wé‘ and 作 tsoh precede substantives.

• 道理是勿差個 ’tau ’lí ’zz veh t’só kú‘, the doctrine, is right.
• 心裏來得笨 sing ’lí lé tuh pun‘, in mind he is stupid.
• 我勿做兵 ’ngú veh tsú‘ ping, I am not a soldier.
• 我勿為官 ’ngú veh wé kwén ’fú, I am not a mandarin.
• 寫來好看 ’siá lé ’hau k’ön‘, it is well written.
• 寫得勿好 ’siá tuh veh ’hau, it is written badly.

Obs. Educated men appear to avoid the use of 來 lé, as a substitute for 得, but it is extremely common among the lower classes.

379. In the predicate are found, a substantive, adjective, verb, or adverb, or a group of either.

• 比我大個是阿哥 ’pí ’ngú dú‘ kú‘ ’zz á kú, he who is older than I is called elder brother.
• 赦免小過失好個 só‘ ’míen ’siau kú‘ seh ’hau kú‘, to forgive little faults readily is good.
• 戲咾戲法咾啥勿看 h’í‘ lau h’í‘ fah lau sá‘ veh k’ön‘, plays, jugglery and such things, I do not go to see.
• 價錢最大個是珍珠八寶 ká‘ díen tsúe‘ dú‘ kú‘ ’zz tsun tsû pah ’pau, things of the highest price are pearls and the eight precious stones.

Obs. The final expletives are usually appended to the predicate. 說話 好個 seh wó‘ ’hau kú‘, your words are good.

380. In very many sentences, the predicate is a transitive verb with an object, which in its simplest form is a substantive, monosyllabic or consisting of a group.

• 做好事就是周濟窮人 tsú‘ ’hau zz‘ dzieu‘ ’zz tseu tsí‘ gióng niun, charity consists in giving to the poor.
• 伊勿能辦事體 í veh nung pan‘ zz‘ ’t’í, he cannot transact business.
• 有銅錢個人要吃燕窩咾魚翅, ’yeu dóng díen kú‘ niun yau‘ k’iuh íen‘ ú lau ng t’sz‘, those who are rich eat birds’ nests and sharks’ fins.

381. Great variety is introduced into sentences, without the addition of separate clauses, by applying qualifying words and groups to the parts just enumerated. Extension by the apposition of words, alike or contrasted in meaning, and in the same parts of speech, is also very common. The subject is extended:—

a. By prefixing an adjective.

• 聖人出世 sung‘ niun t’seh sz‘, a wise man was born.
• 窮苦個人多 kióng ’k’ú kú‘ niun tú, poor men are very many.
• 好老個讀書人少 ’hau ’lau kú‘ tók sû niun ’sau, really good scholars are rare.

b. By apposition of substantives with or without kú‘, whether in the relation of species and genus, or subject and attribute.

• 鄕下人告荒去者 h’iáng ’au niun kau‘ hwong k’í‘ ’tsé, the country people are gone to announce that there is a famine (or 哭荒).
• 上輩個好處要講拉子孫聽 ’záng pé‘ kú‘ ’hau t’sû‘ yau‘ ’kong ’lá ’tsz sun t’ing, the goodness of their forefathers, you should tell to their descendants.

c. By a transitive infinitive with its objective case.

• 吃牛肉眞正罪過 k’iuh nieu nióh tsun tsung‘ ’zé kú‘, to eat beef is an unquestionable sin.

d. By the addition of nouns or verbs governed by case particles.

• 屋裏向嘸沒人 óh ’lí h’iáng‘ m meh niun, there is no one at home.
• 勒拉睏個辰光有賊偷之去者 leh ’lá k’wun‘ kú‘ zun kwong ’yeu zuh t’eu tsz k’í‘ ’tsé, at the time of sleeping, thieves came and stole it.

Obs. The so-called genitive with 個 kú‘, included under (b) as an instance of apposition. It is the attributive genitive, or possessive case of western grammars. The genitive sense is given by the relative position of the words, and not by the connecting particle kú‘ often omitted.

e. By prefixing numbers and numeral particles to substantives.

• 兩個女人投井者 ’liáng kú‘ ’nü niun deu ’tsing ’tsé, two women have thrown themselves into wells.
• 三隻廟燒毀完者 san tsáh miau‘ sau ’hwé wén ’tsé, three temples have been burnt to ashes.

f. By prefixing demonstrative, possessive and other adjective pronouns to substantives.

• 是㑚個房屋勿穩足個 ’zz ná‘ kú‘ vong óh veh ’wun tsóh kú‘, your house is not safe.
• 第部牛車了脱者 tí‘ ’bú‘ nieu t’só ’liau t’eh ’tsé, this chain pump is broken.
• 各人個脾氣各樣個 koh niun kú‘ bí‘ k’í‘ koh yáng‘ kú‘, each man has his own disposition.

g. By prefixing adverbs of place or time with the sign of the possessive, or with no intervening particle. It might also be said, that these adverbs are here all treated as substantives.

• 此地個水清個 ’t’sz dí‘ kú‘ ’sz t’sing kú‘, the water of this place is clear.
• 蕩搭個人掉皮個 tong tah kú‘ niun tiau‘ bí‘ kú‘, the men of this place are not honest.
• 間壁房子火灼 kah pih vong ’tsz ’hú dzáh, the house next door is on fire.
• 什蓋能個謠言拉城裏 seh ké‘ nung kú‘ yau íen ’lá zung ’lí, there is a report of that sort in the city.
• 現在個百姓勿比古時間 íen ’zé kú‘ pák sing‘ veh ’pí ’kú zz kan, people of the present time are not to be compared to those of antiquity.

382. Several of these adjuncts may concur in forming a subject.

• 外國梳頭個規矩又是一樣者 ngá‘ kóh sz deu kú‘ kwé ’kü í‘ ’zz ih yáng‘ ’tsé, the foreign method of dressing the hair is different.
• 孝順父母恭敬祖宗原是一樣個道理 h’iau‘ zun‘ ’vú ’mú, kúng kiung‘ ’tsú tsóng, niön ’zz ih yáng‘ kú‘ ’tau ’lí, filial regard to parents and reverencing ancestors are the same thing.

383. The predicate is extended in a similar manner. It may assume the following forms.

а. Substantive with its adjective.

• 是其勿是正派人 ’zz gí veh ’zz tsung‘ p’á‘ niun, he is not a man of good morals.
• 一日到夜做正經事體 ih nyih tau‘ yá‘ tsú‘ tsung‘ kiung zz‘ ’t’í, all day long he does what is lawful and right.

b. Substantives in apposition, in the relation of species and genus, or subject and attribute, with or without 個 kú‘.

• 伊話個勿是上海話 í wó‘ kú‘ veh ’zz ’zong ’hé wó‘, what he speaks is not the dialect of Shánghái.
• 八月裏開個有桂花 pah niöh ’lí k’é kú‘ ’yeu kwé‘ hwó, among the flowers that blossom in the eighth month is the olea fragrans.

c. Verbs in apposition. Any verbs in English connected by and, to and of are translated by two corresponding verbs in apposition.

• 我要走前去做 ’ngú yau‘ ’tseu zíen k’í‘ tsú‘, I wish to go forward and do it.
• 我勿想考 ’ngú veh ’siáng ’k’au, I do not think of being examined.
• 我勿來打儂 ’ngú veh lé ’táng nóng‘, I do not come to beat you.

d. Verb with an object.

• 別人恨伊拉 pih niun hung‘ í ’lá, men hated him.
• 脚勿踏斜路 kiáh veh tah ziá lú‘, his foot does not tread the path of evil.
• 早夜用功 ’tsau yá‘ yúng‘ kóng, morning and night, he applies himself to study.
• 雲裏向看相殺 yün ’lí h’iáng‘ k’ön‘ siáng sah, to take a bird’s-eye view of a battle (相殺 is construed as a noun).

e. Verbs, nouns or adverbs of place and time in construction with 拉 or 在.

• 東家勿拉屋裏 túng ká veh ’lá óh ’lí, the master is not at home.
• 百姓勒拉掛墓 pák sing‘ leh ’lá kwó‘ m‘, the people are hanging (paper) on the tombs.

f. Adjective pronouns, and numbers with the particles appropriated to the substantives contained in the subject.

• 銀子有一百兩 niung ’tsz ’yeu ih páh ’liáng, of silver, there are a hundred taels.
• 第把雨傘是吾個 tí‘ pó ’ü san‘ ’zz ngú kú‘, this umbrella is mine.

g. The verb is qualified by the various kinds of adverbs, either preceding it in apposition, or following it with 得 tuh, or 來 lé, as subordinate copula.

• 件件事體禿是做得正經個 kíen gíen zz‘ ’t’í t’óh ’zz tsú‘ tuh tsung‘ kiung kú‘, everything is done as propriety requires.
• 菩薩一定曉得 pú sah ih ding‘ ’h’iau tuh, the gods will certainly know it.

h. The cause, manner, instrument, place or time of the action are expressed by nouns preceding the verb.

• 黃衣裳是皇帝送個 wong í zong ’zz wong tí‘ sóng‘ kú‘, yellow dresses are given by the emperor.
• 團扇是蘇州做個 tön sen‘ ’zz Sú-tseu tsú‘ kú‘, round (silk) fans are made at Sú-cheú.
• 人個過犯全是神道查察個 niun kú‘ kú‘ van dzén ’zz zun dau‘ dzó t’sah kú‘, men’s sins are all watched and noted by the spiritual powers.
• 人全是一個祖宗傳下來 niun dzén ’zz ih kú‘ ’tsú tsóng zén ’au lé, men are all descended from one ancestor.
• 我下半晝轉來個 ’ngú ’au pén‘ tseu‘ ’tsen lé kú‘, I will return in the afternoon.
• 地皮是牛犂個 tí‘ bí ’zz nieu lí kú‘, the ground is ploughed by oxen.
• 從小到大是爺娘照應 dzóng ’siau tau‘ dú‘ ’zz yá niáng tsau‘ yung‘, from childhood till they are grown they are watched over by their parents.

Obs. The number of prepositions omitted in examples similar to these is very great. Few of them are so essential that they may not be rejected. The remarkable conciseness of written and spoken Chinese is due very much to the omission of prepositions in the manner here illustrated. For that conciseness, there is however in many cases full compensation, in the wordiness or richness, whichever term be preferred, of the groups.

j. The same circumstances of cause manner, etc. are also expressed with case particles attached to the noun.

• 張舉人到蘇去者 Tsáng ’kü niun tau‘ Sú-tseu k’í‘ ’tsé, the Master of Arts named Cháng, is gone to Sú-cheú.
• 第個砲架子替吳道台做個 tí‘ kú‘ p’au‘ ká‘ ’tsz t’í‘ Wú ’dau dé tsú‘ kú‘, this cannon-carriage is made for Wú the Taú-tái.

k. Adjective with a qualifying adverb.

• 是㑚飄流個人忒多 ’zz ná‘ p’iau lieu kú‘ niun t’uk tú, you wandering people are too many.
• 打官司要速訊定當 ’táng kwén sz yau‘ sók sin‘ ding‘ tong‘, lawsuits should be quickly decided.

384. The predicate is further enlarged by a combination of the above forms of arrangement, by simple apposition as coordinates, or according to the laws of position already detailed.

• 生活要做到夜 sáng weh yau‘ tsú‘ tau‘ yá‘, work must be done till evening.
• 我白費脱之許多手脚 ’ngú pák fí‘ t’eh tsz ’h’ü tú ’seu kiáh, I do have gone through a great deal of labour to no purpose.
• 賭銅錢勿曉得敗脫之幾千幾萬個人家 ’tú dóng díen veh ’h’iau tuh bá‘ t’eh tsz ’kí t’síen ’kí man‘ kú‘ niun ká, gaming has ruined I do not know how many thousands and myriads of men.
• 我看見伊出來 ’ngú (subj.) k’ön‘ kíen‘ í t’seh lé, I saw him come out.

385. The copula by a little extension of the meaning of the terms, may be considered as embracing the emphatic adverbs, and the verb forms for affirmation and negation. In conformity with this, the substantive verb 是 is constantly used in the sense of yes, and with the negative particle (勿是), no. The adverbs of emphasis precede the copula.

• 新眞正來得硬 sing tsun tsung‘ lé tuh ngáng‘, his heart is certainly hard.
• 一定是牢實 ih ding‘ ’zz lau zeh, he is certainly trustworthy.
• 總是花頭花腦 ’tsóng ’zz hwó deu hwó ’nau, it is surely false.
• 昨日來個就是我 zóh nyih lé kú‘ dzieu‘ ’zz ’ngú, he who came yesterday was I myself.

Obs. The verb to have 有 ’yeu (with its opposite 嘸沒 m meh) describes existence, as in French the verb avoir. The adverbs of emphasis precede it, as they do the other substantive verb; e.g. 一點嘸沒啥 ih ’tíen m meh sá, or m sá‘, there is nothing the matter; 第個道理實在有 tí‘ kú‘ ’tau ’lí zeh zé‘ ’yeu, there certainly is this doctrine.

386. When there is a negative particle, the adverb of emphasis precedes it.

• 一眼勿疑心 ih ’ngan veh ní sing, not at all incredulous.
• 伊並勿是要騙打㑚 í ping‘ veh ’zz yau‘ p’íen‘ ’táng ná‘, he surely does not attempt to deceive you.
• 樹木倒勿曾發靑 zû‘ móh ’tau veh zung fah t’sing, the trees have still not yet opened their buds.

Obs. When the necessity is denied, the negative precedes the adverb expressity; e.g. 勿必要去 veh pih yau‘ k’i‘, you are not obliged to go.

387. There are several verbs, not having a full transitive power, that are often to be taken as little more than an extension of the copula. They are such as, 呌 kiau‘, 做 tsú‘, 爲 wé, 作 tsoh.

• 第個勿呌公道 tí‘ kú‘ veh kiau‘ kúng ’dau, that is not (or cannot be called) just (or veh kúng ’dau), (or veh sön‘ kúng ’dau, cannot be considered as just).
• 我做用人 ’ngú tsú‘ yúng‘ niun, I am a servant.
• 謀反爲大事體 meu ’fan wé dú‘ zz‘ ’t’í, rebellion is a great matter.
• 女人勿好作主張 ’nü niun veh ’hau tsok ’tsû tsáng, women should not be rulers.

Obs. The equivalents of these words, in languages having forms of declension, usually take the nominative case after them.

388. The correlative pronouns and sometimes adjectives, are placed like the emphatic adverbs before the copula, the substantives they represent being the subject.

• 人秃是劃一個 niun t’óh ’zz wáh ih kú‘, the men are all honest.
• 惡事體一切全要甩脫個 og zz‘ ’t’í ih t’sih dzén yau‘ hwah t’eh kú‘, bad actions are all to be abandoned.
• 字目大有用頭 zz‘ móh tú‘ ’yeu yúng‘ deu, great is the use of the written character.