Transparent enamels are comparable to clear glazes and the coloring medium is the same. Their preparation is difficult and therefore trade names have been given in the table of Figure 464. As will be seen by consulting the diagram of Figure 464, T1, T2, T3, etc., they are all at their full value intensity. Enamels, as supplied by the trade, are much too intense for use in enrichment and consequently are applied over a coating of colorless clear enamel, technically named flux or fondant. As the thickness of coating of enamel may vary, the hue classification is to be regarded as approximate.
Plate 66
Opaque enamels may be compared with matt glazes, for, while the texture of the surface has a distinct gloss, the enamels themselves are not so strong in hue as the transparent enamels. By referring to the diagram of Figure 464, it may be seen that many of the opaque enamels are reduced in chroma, thus accounting for their softened hue.
Metals are capable of considerable change of color by the application of chemicals to the surface. Potassium sulphuret will lower the surface value of silver or copper to a rich velvety black associated with antiques. This may be removed in places naturally subjected to wear, thus varying the dead black appearance. Copper and brass may be coated with salt and vinegar or verdigris to give the surface a corroded and greenish appearance. Heating is a fugitive method of coloring and is, therefore, not considered.
These surface changes may be utilized to harmonize metal and its environment, as, for example, copper trimmings and a shade for a pottery lamp; or it may be used to reduce the brightness of the natural copper surface.
The surfaces of metals may be changed with actual manipulation of the surface by frosting or sanding and plating. Gold may be readily plated with gold to bring it into closer harmony with the stone. Plating, applied to base metals, merely to give the impression of a more expensive metal, is to be discouraged.
One has to consider metal as a background in much the same manner as we considered wall surfaces as a background for stained furniture. Whatever color is applied to the surface must harmonize in proportionate distribution as well as hue, value, and chroma. We have a small amount of leeway for varying the background by the different processes of oxidation and plating.
As one of the more common processes, let us consider the application of enamel to copper in the form of champleve enrichment. Our first thought would be the analysis of the natural copper color. It is found to be a shade of orange-red and will, therefore, readily harmonize with the analogous oranges and reds, as they both have the common hue of red. There should be a slight contrast of value between these enamels and the background. If this contrast is not present, it is well to oxidize slightly the copper to lower its value and thus produce the contrast.
The fourth harmonious hue combination, that of complementary arrangement or grouping, has been left to the last as its use is more closely associated with small multi-colored projects and small areas. A hue approximately complementary to the initial hue is found by counting seven rectangles to the right or left of that hue; this will give the hue complementary to the initial hue. Thus, starting with red and moving through seven rectangles toward the right, we find the complement to be green. Any two hues so selected will be found to enhance the brilliancy of each other. The best results are secured when one hue dominates the color scheme by its increased area. Pottery may be adapted to a complementary color scheme by Rule 12i.
Rule 12o. Small one or two-hued projects in clay, designed to be used as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room should bear a contrasted, dominant, analogous, or complementary relation to the side walls of the room. The project may be much higher in chroma than the side walls.
To find a glaze that will harmonize with the side walls of a room by complementary arrangement of hues, select the desired wall tint from the diagram in Figure 457. Find the similar hue rectangle in the diagram of Figure 464 and, starting with this rectangle as one, count seven hues from the side wall rectangle in either direction. In the seventh rectangle or in a neighboring one will usually be found a number of glazes answering the requirements and bearing a complementary relation to the side walls. Select a glaze from these that will make a contrast of chroma or value with the side wall. Example: background or side wall, Figure 457, No. 8, is in the orange yellow rectangle. Counting seven from this in Figure 464 we find the complement to be blue violet. As there is no glaze in this rectangle we will move to its neighbor on the left. This gives us clear glaze, C1, containing one and one-half per cent black oxide of cobalt, or a matt glaze containing seven per cent mazarine blue.
Glazes that will harmonize with side wall 8 through dominant arrangements are found in the same rectangle, O Y, and are numbered M5, M6, C7, C8. Glazes that will harmonize by analogy are C9 and M7, and are found in the left and right neighboring rectangles.
In Figure 466, the copper fob, R O, is combined with its complementary blue-green. Let us look at Figure 464. Counting seven intervals or hue rectangles to the right of the orange red rectangle we find T4 which is transparent blue green enamel. We may associate with this an analogous enamel from the green rectangle; this proves to be T5 medium green transparent enamel.
The point of concentration may now be emphasized by an enamel complementary to the blue green hue. Counting seven rectangles to the left we again encounter the red orange rectangle. Here there are no enamels but in the red hue rectangle we find T7 which is slightly orange-red. A small portion of this, Rule 12k, is applied and is found to center the design at the point of concentration in a satisfactory manner. Slight oxidation brings out the colors of the enamels.
Upon attempting to develop the same figure in opaque enamels it is soon seen that there are no pleasing complementary enamels of this type, but many analogous combinations. Autumn brown with the point of concentration developed in orange (O5) would be an excellent compromise.
Rule 12p. Correct color for surface enrichment should neither apparently rise above nor drop below the surface to which it is applied, but should stay upon the plane of that surface. Correct value and chroma range will accomplish this.
The gray-blue color of silver lends itself to a great number of gem stones, forming examples of contrasted arrangements. Care should be taken to form contrasts of value. Figure 467 is an example of a weak and insipid combination, lacking in value and hue contrast. The amethyst of Figure 468 corrects this error, while the oxidation of Figure 469 has partially corrected the lack of contrast shown in Figure 467. These illustrations tend to show that even stronger contrasts may be attempted with small gems and semi-precious stones than with enamels. This again proves the rule that the smaller areas are capable of sustaining stronger contrasts of hue, value, and chroma than are large ones.
SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS
The outline of the surface enrichment is considered as complete.
(a) Metal or Wood. Analyze the background into its hue, value, and chroma. Clay. Select a background that will harmonize with the controlling hue or hues of the proposed color scheme. Rule 12o. If this is a one hued color scheme without gradation or surface enrichment the design steps may terminate at this point.
(b) Metal, Wood, and Clay. Select the extreme value range of the color scheme, considering, if possible, the background as a balancing or pivotal value point upon which the values may balance above and below. As the side walls formed a balancing point for the ceiling and furniture or wood work, so may the background of metal, wood, or colored clay become a similar balancing factor for small surfaces. Rule 12m.
(c) Metal, Wood, and Clay. Select a hue or hues which will harmonize with the background through dominant, contrasting, or analogous relations. Rule 12l. In selecting the hues consider the final placing of the object.
(d) Metal, Wood, and Clay. Select a chroma range. Allow the point or area of concentration to have a slightly higher chromatic relation than the other hues. The point of concentration may be one of the hues already selected or it may bear a complementary relation to them. The hues may be averaged and a complementary to the average selected. Rule 12n.
(e) Metal, Wood, and Clay. Apply the rule of proportionate distribution, Rule 12k.
(f) Metal and Wood. Using the pigments suggested in Chapter XV, design the problem. Test the result by applying Rule 12p.
(g) Clay. If the design has been developed in slip or underglaze painting, select a glaze for an overglaze coating that will harmonize with the prevailing hues by dominance or analogy. Other arrangements may destroy the hues of the original color scheme.
(h) Develop the problem in its material.
SUGGESTED PROBLEMS
Design a bowl for nasturtiums; make the color arrangement harmonize through analogy with the hues of the flowers.
Design a vase for chrysanthemums; make the surface enrichment and the color arrangement harmonize through dominance with the hues of the flowers.
Design a hat pin for a blue hat; materials, copper, and transparent enamels.
Design a brooch to be worn with a gray dress.
Design a pottery and copper lamp with amber art glass in the shade. Through oxidation and glazing, bring the lamp into color unity.
SUMMARY OF RULES
Rule 12k. Proportionate distribution of hue, value, and chroma in surface enrichment calls for a small area high in chroma and contrasting in value to the rest of the surface, but harmonizing with it. This is usually located in the area of concentration. The larger areas are to be sufficiently reduced in chroma and value to form a slight contrast with the background.
Hues for Small Objects
Rule 12l. One hue, or a group of analogous hues should dominate all color schemes. The point of concentration may be emphasized by one hue related to the other hues by (1) contrasted, (2) dominant, (3) analogous, or (4) complementary relations. This hue should make slightly stronger value and chroma contrast than the remaining hues.
Values for Small Objects
Rule 12m. An extreme range of five values is generally sufficient to supply contrast to a design but still retain its value unity. Restraint in the use of values is essential.
Chroma for Small Objects
Rule 12n. The amount of chroma may be increased in proportion to the decrease in the decorated area. Exceptions may be made to this under Rule 12o.
Rule 12o. Small one or two-hued projects in clay, designed to be used as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room should bear a contrasted, dominant, analogous, or complementary relation to the side walls of the room. The project may be much higher in chroma than the side walls.
Rule 12p. Correct color for surface enrichment should neither apparently rise above nor drop below the surface to which it is applied, but should stay upon the plane of that surface. Correct value and chroma range will accomplish this.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. State the value of mono-hued pottery in the decorative scheme of a room.
2. What are generally used as stains for clear glazes; matt glazes?
3. What is highest in chroma—matt, or clear glaze?
4. Make a table of metallic oxides and the hues produced by them.
5. Why will iron and copper oxides produce a yellow green stain? What stains will be produced by cobalt and copper oxides; cobalt and manganese oxides; cobalt and nickel oxides?
6. Describe the type of room which you regard as best fitted for clear glazed pottery forms; matt glazed pottery forms.
7. Define harmony of color.
8. What is meant by proportionate distribution? Describe proportionate distribution.
9. Give the value, hue, and chroma range for small areas. See Rules 12l, 12m, and 12n.
10. How does the size of the area to be enriched by color affect the color medium, i.e., stains, glazes, enamels, etc.?
11. Describe enamels, their types, characteristics, and range of hues. Consult catalogs for fuller possibilities.
12. What is the effect of oxidation; what is its value?
13. Describe fully complementary arrangements and give illustrations for enamel on silver or copper.
14. State the color scheme for a fob to be worn with a blue-green dress; with a gray suit for a man.
15. Select a stone for a silver brooch that would harmonize with a light blue dress; for a dress of orange dark hue and value. See catalogs of dealers in semi-precious stones for color of stones.
16. What problems of hue, value, and chroma would arise in Question 15?
Rule 1a. A primary mass must be either vertical or horizontal according to the intended service, unless prohibited by technical requirements.
Rule 1b. The primary mass should have the ratio of one to three, three to four, three to five, five to eight, seven to ten, or some similar proportion difficult for the eye to detect readily and analyze.
Rule 2a. If the primary mass is divided into two horizontal divisions, the dominance should be either in the upper or the lower section.
Rule 2b. If the primary mass is divided into three horizontal divisions or sections, the dominance should be placed in the center section with varying widths in the upper and lower thirds.
Rule 2c. A primary mass may be divided into three or more smaller horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger mass or masses at the bottom and by sequentially reducing the height measure of each mass toward the smaller division or divisions to be located at the top of the mass.
Rule 3a. If the primary mass is divided into two vertical divisions, the divisions should be equal in area and similar in form.
Rule 3b. If the primary mass is divided into three vertical divisions, the center division should be the larger, with the remaining divisions of equal size.
Rule 3c. In elementary problems, if more than three vertical divisions are required, they should be so grouped as to analyze into Rules 3a, and 3b, or be exactly similar.
Rule 4a. The appendage should be designed in unity with, and proportionately related to, the vertical or horizontal character of the primary mass, but subordinated to it.
Rule 4b. The appendage should have the appearance of flowing smoothly and, if possible, tangentially from the primary mass.
Rule 4c. The appendage should, if possible, echo or repeat some lines similar in character and direction to those of the primary mass.
Rule 5a. Outline enrichment should be subordinated to and support the structure.
Rule 5b. Outline enrichment should add grace, lightness, and variety to the design.
Rule 5c. Outline enrichment, by its similarity, should give a sense of oneness or unity to the design, binding divergent members together.
Rule 5d. Parts of one design differing in function should differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire design.
Rule 5e. In cylindrical forms outline curves with a vertical tendency should have their turning points or units of measurement in accordance with the horizontal divisions of Rules 2a and 2b.
Rule 5f. Dependent outline enrichment should be related to essential parts of a design and influenced by their forms and functions; it must be consistent with the idea of the subject.
Rule 5g. A curve should join a straight line with either a tangential or right angle junction.
Postulate. The design should conform to the limitations and requirements of tools, processes, and materials, and should be durable and suitable for service.
Rule 6a. Surfaces to be enriched must admit of enrichment.
Rule 6b. Surface enrichment must be related to the structural contours but must not obscure the actual structure.
Rule 6c. The treatment must be appropriate to the material.
Rule 6d. Bands and borders should have a consistent lateral, that is, onward movement.
Rule 6e. Bands and borders should never have a prominent contrary motion, opposed to the main forward movement.
Rule 6f. All component parts of a border should move in unison with the main movement of the border.
Rule 6g. Each component part of a border should be strongly dynamic and, if possible, partake of the main movements of the border.
Rule 6h. Borders intended for vertical surfaces may have a strongly upward movement in addition to the lateral movement, provided the lateral movement dominates.
Rule 6i. Inlayed enrichment should never form strong or glaring contrasts with the parent surface.
Rule 6j. Carved surface enrichment should have the appearance of belonging to the parent mass.
Rule 7a. Marginal panel enrichment should parallel or be related to the outlines of the primary mass and to the panel it is to enrich.
Rule 7b. Marginal points of concentration in panels should be placed (1) preferably at the corners or (2) in the center of each margin.
Rule 7c. To insure unity of design in panels, the elements composing the point of concentration and links connecting them must be related to the panel contour and to each other.
Rule 7d. The contours of fully enriched panels should parallel the outlines of the primary mass and repeat its proportions.
Rule 7e. The points of concentration for a fully enriched square panel may be in its center or in its outer margin.
Rule 7f. The points of concentration for a fully enriched vertical panel should be in the upper portion of the panel.
Rule 7g. The fully enriched panel and its contents should be designed in unified relation to the structural outlines, with the center line of the panel coinciding with the inceptive axis of the structure.
Rule 8a. Free ornament for partly or fully enriched surfaces should be based and centered upon an inceptive axis of the structure.
Rule 8b. Free ornament should be related and subordinated to the structural surfaces.
Rule 8c. Points of concentration in free enrichment of vertically placed masses are usually located in and around the inceptive axis and above or below the geometric center of the design.
Rule 9a. Surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to be able to withstand the action of heat to which all ware must be submitted.
Rule 9b. Incised, pierced, and modeled decoration in clay should be simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of the material.
Rule 9c. A border should not be located at the point of greatest curvature in the contour of a cylindrical form. The contour curve is of sufficient interest in itself at that point.
Rule 10a. Designs in precious metals should call for the minimum amount of metal necessary to express the idea of the designer for two reasons: (1) good taste; (2) economy of material.
Rule 10b. Contour and surface enrichment should never appear to compete for attention in the same design.
Rule 10c. Parts of a design differing in function should differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire design.
Rule 10d. Surface enrichment should at some point parallel the contours of both primary mass and point of concentration especially whenever the latter is a stone or enamel.
Rule 10e. In the presence of either stone or enamel as a point of concentration, surface enrichment should be regarded as an unobtrusive setting, or background.
Rule 10f. Stone or enamel used as a point of concentration should form contrast with the metal, either in color, brilliancy, or value, or all three combined.
Rule 10g. The inceptive axis should pass through and coincide with one axis of a stone and at the same time be sympathetically related to the structure.
Rule 10h. The position of the inceptive axis should be determined by: (1) use of the project as ring, pendant, or bar pin, (2) character of the primary mass as either vertical or horizontal in proportion.
Rule 10i. Caution should be exercised with regard to the use of enamel. Over-decoration by this material tends to cheapen both process and design.
Rule 10j. All surface enrichment should have an appearance of compactness or unity. Pierced spots or areas should be so used as to avoid the appearance of having been scattered on the surface without thought to their coherence.
Rule 10k. Built, carved, and chased enrichment should have the higher planes near the point of concentration. It is well to have the stone as the highest point above the primary mass. When using this form of enrichment, the stone should never appear to rise abruptly from the primary mass, but should be approached by a series of rising planes.
Rule 10l. The lanes or margins between enameled spots should be narrower than the lane or margin between the enamel and the contour of the primary mass.
Rule 10m. Transparent and opaque stones or enamel should not be used in the same design.
Rule 11a. The preliminary steps toward surface enrichment should be thought out before they are drawn.
Rule 11b. Conservative application should mark the use of surface enrichment of large masses. Its use should: (1) lighten or soften necessarily heavy construction; (2) support or apparently strengthen good structure; (3) add interest to large unbroken and uninteresting surfaces.
Rule 11c. The type of design unit for large masses should be bolder than similar designs for small primary masses.
Rule 11d. The eye should be attracted to one principal zone of enrichment, whether located upon the primary mass, appendage, terminal, links, or details. All other zones should be subordinate to this area.
Rule 11e. Two periods of historic ornament should not be introduced into the same design.
Rule 11f. Repulsive forms should not be introduced into surface enrichment.
Rule 12a. An average wood stain is to be retained between the values middle and low dark.
Rule 12b. An average wall hue is to be retained between the values light and middle.
Rule 12c. An average ceiling hue is to be retained between the values white (minus) and light.
Rule 12d. The relation between the side walls and furniture, trim, etc., should be retained within the range of four values or less, as low light and dark.
Rule 12e. The relation between the side walls and ceiling should be within the range of three values or less, as high light and low light.
Rule 12f. Color schemes for wood work and side walls should preferably be selected from one of the following groupings: analogous, contrasted, or dominant arrangements of hues. Analogous grouping is preferable where variety of hue is desirable.
Rule 12g. Ceilings should be colored by a lighter tint of the side walls or by a lighter tint of an analogous hue.
Rule 12h. Stains are usually not reduced to below three-fourths chromatic intensity. Nearly gray side walls, however, call for a reduction to one-fourth intensity.
Rule 12i. Wall colors are usually reduced to three-fourths chroma to a minimum reduction of slightly less than one-fourth chroma.
Rule 12j. Ceilings should usually be reduced in chroma to three-fourths intensity, with slightly less than one-fourth chroma as a minimum reduction.
Rule 12k. Proportionate distribution of hue, value, and chroma in surface enrichment calls for a small area, high in chroma, and contrasting in value to the rest of the surface, but harmonizing with it. This is usually located in the area of concentration. The larger areas are to be sufficiently reduced in chroma and value to form slight contrast with the background.
Rule 12l. One hue, or a group of analogous hues should dominate all color schemes. The point of concentration may be emphasized by one hue related to the other hues by (1) contrasted, (2) dominant, (3) analogous, (4) complementary relations. This hue should make slightly stronger value and chroma contrast than the remaining hues.
Rule 12m. An extreme range of five values is generally sufficient to supply contrast to a design but still retain its value unity. Restraint in the use of values is essential.
Rule 12n. The amount of chroma may be increased in proportion to the decrease in the decorated area. Exceptions may be made to this under Rule 12o.
Rule 12o. Small one or two-hued projects in clay, designed to be used as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room should bear a contrasted, dominant, analogous, or complementary relation to the side walls of the room. The project may be much higher in chroma than the side walls.
Rule 12p. Correct color for surface enrichment should neither apparently rise above nor drop below the surface to which it is applied, but should stay upon the plane of that surface. Correct value and chroma range will accomplish this.
The following plates comprise complete courses for applied art problems in thin metal (copper and silver), and clay. The problems are based upon what is known as the "group system." The process forms the basis for each group in each course. The stated problem in each group is merely one of many that might be selected which involves the process of the group.
The design rule that should be applied to each problem has been indicated by its proper figure and letter on each plate, as 10a, etc. The plates are sequentially arranged in order of the difficulty of the process and may be summarized as follows.
Plate 67: Bending. Sawing. Riveting.
Plate 68: Bending. Soft Soldering.
Plate 69: Raising. Piercing. Etching.
Plate 70: Raising and Planishing.
Plate 71: Bending. Piercing. Etching. Hard Soldering.
Plate 72: Hinge Construction.
Plate 73: Raising. Planishing. Hard Soldering.
Plate 74: Raising. Planishing.
Plate 75: Champleve Enamelling.
Plate 76: Precious Stone Mounting; Pins.
Plate 77: Precious Stone Mounting; Rings.
Plate 78: Precious Stone Mounting; Pendants.
Plate 79: Hand Built Tile.
Plate 80: Hand Built Bowl, Coil and Strip Method.
Plate 81: Same with Appendage Added.
Plate 82: Hand Building; Spouts, Lids, Handles.
Plate 83: Poured Forms and Mould Making.
Plate 84: Slip Painting.
Plate 85: Glaze Testing.
Figure 471 shows the actual results produced by the preceding course. The process to which the individual pieces belong is indicated by the small figure placed on the table and in front of the ware. The preceding sheets should be regarded in the light of suggestions for original thinking on the part of the student. They merely suggest technical guidance, in order that his progress may be sequential and fitted to his increasing skill.
The glazes are stated in the terms of the ceramist with the proportions of base, alumina, and acid content of each glaze clearly stated. By referring to the textbooks mentioned in the preface, these glazes may be developed into the potter's formulae.
In both metal and pottery courses, two or more types are frequently represented upon one plate. These types will allow the teacher to assign a more difficult problem to the student with some previous experience.