Rule 10j. All surface enrichment should have an appearance of compactness or unity. Pierced spots or areas should be so used as to avoid the appearance of having been scattered on the surface without thought to their coherence.

Rule 10k. Built, carved, and chased enrichment should have the higher planes near the point of concentration. It is well to have the stone as the highest point above the primary mass. When using this form of enrichment the stone should never appear to rise abruptly from the primary mass, but should be approached by a series of rising planes.

Rule 10l. The lanes or margins between enameled spots should be narrower than the lane or margin between the enamel and the contour of the primary mass.

Rule 10m. Transparent and opaque stones or enamel should not be used in the same design.

Postulate.—The design should conform to the limitations and requirements of tools, processes, and materials, and should be durable and suitable for service.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is often used as a point of concentration in the surface enrichment of precious metals? Why?

2. State direction of the inceptive axis for problems similar to: (a) tie pins, (b) pendants, (c) fobs, (d) rings, (e) bar pins? Why? Under what grouping of planes may they be placed?

3. State the relation between the point of concentration and the inceptive axis.

4. Give three steps in the design evolution of surface enrichment for small flat planes.

5. Describe briefly eleven decorative processes for the surface enrichment of precious metals with the technical rendering of each.

6. Illustrate examples of dependent contour and dependent surface enrichment of precious metals.

7. Where should a stone in a design similar to a pin or brooch be placed with reference to the inceptive axis and the geometric center of the primary mass?

8. Illustrate manner of planning primary mass, inceptive axis, point of concentration, contour, and surface enrichment of: (a) pins, (b) fobs, (c) rings, (d) pendants and chains.

9. State the relation of stone or enamel to metal.

10. What rule should govern the amount of metal used in a design?

11. State the objection to a design with contour and surface enrichment equally elaborated.

12. Is it possible to vary the design motive of a chain from that of a pendant? Why and how?

13. Give illustration and requirements of a good design in champleve enamel.

14. What precautions should be exercised in designing pierced enrichment?

15. What rules should be observed in designing a built-up or carved design?

Chapter XIV
SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE AND PRECIOUS METALS

The surface enrichment of small, flat primary masses treated in Chapter XIII emphasized the designer's tendency for full surface enrichment of small areas. Such treatment has proved satisfactory because the eye can readily and immediately observe and comprehend or assimilate an enrichment upon a small area. For larger enriched areas considered in this chapter, full surface enrichment becomes a questionable policy for the following reasons.

It is true that the old time craftsman with consummate skill fully enriched large surfaces, but two factors interfere with this mode of treatment today. The first factor is the decidedly practical nature of the problem. The service to which the modern industrial project is put interferes with the use of full surface enrichment. The second is the lack of skill on the part of the modern amateur designer. It is a sound policy to avoid the ornateness that frequently accompanies a large and unskillfully planned area. In place of this, we should limit the enrichment of large masses to a few salient areas which are well related to the structural lines.

Rule 11b. Conservative application should mark the use of surface enrichment of large masses. Its use should: (1) lighten or soften necessarily heavy construction; (2) support or apparently strengthen good structure; (3) add interest to large unbroken and uninteresting surfaces.

These salient areas should determine the surface enrichment appropriate to the structure, so that the enrichment: (1) will lighten or soften necessarily heavy construction as in Figure 403; (2) support or apparently strengthen good structure, Figure 413; (3) add interest to large unbroken or otherwise uninteresting surfaces as illustrated in Figure 405. To aid in producing the desired results, we have the technical processes mentioned in Chapter XIII as follows: (1) Piercing; (2) Etching; (3) Chasing; (4) Enameling; (5) Inlaying; (6) Stone setting; (7) Building; (8) Carving; (9) Planishing; (10) Frosting; (11) Oxidizing. On the plates for this chapter, the figure generally following the cut number refers to the process, as: Figure 446, 3.

Surface Design Evolution

Rule 11a. The preliminary steps toward surface enrichment should be thought out before they are drawn.

A designer will be materially helped if he devotes a few moments of thought to his design problem before he applies the pencil to the paper. In the end the time given to thinking out his problem will gain for him both increased excellence of design and rapidity of execution, provided his thinking is systematic. A sequential order of points to be observed is given below. The object of systematic thought is to form a mental picture of the enrichment to be in full accord with the materials and construction and to be sympathetically related to the structural axes and to the contours. The unenriched mass has been designed and we are now ready for the consideration of surface enrichment in the following order.

(a) Placing the Zone of Service.

1. Where is the zone of service?

(b) Classification of Form.

1. Is the object flat, shallow and circular, low and cylindrical, high and cylindrical?

(c) Placing the Zone of Enrichment.

1. Is the enrichment to be seen from above or from the side? See Figure 406a.

2. What point of the structure suggested by the form needs surface enrichment? Is it the primary mass, appendages, terminals, links, or details? Let the area selected become the zone of enrichment.

(d) Amount of Enrichment.

1. Will the enrichment cover the full surface, part surface (center or margin), or accented outline?

(e) Location of Inceptive Axis.

1. Is the zone of enrichment associated with a square, rectangle, hexagon, or irregularly shaped flat plane, circular or cylindrical surface? Figure 470.

2. How should the inceptive axis be placed in the zone of enrichment to harmonize with the structural forms suggested by 1 (e) and the point from which it is viewed 1 (c)? See the violation of this latter point in Figure 439. Presumably this inceptive axis will be a vertical center line, horizontal center line, diagonal, diameter, radius, the element of a cylinder, or a dynamic curve for a free border.

(f) Point of Concentration.

1. Where should the point of concentration be located upon the inceptive axis?

(g) Unison of Enrichment and Materials.

1. What decorative process will be adaptable to service, the material, and the contemplated design?

(h) Type of Units.

1. What design units are suited to the process selected in (g), appropriate to the texture and structural lines of the form to be enriched and to its ultimate service? Choice may be made from nature, geometric pattern, or historic ornament.

The above points may all be thought out. Now, with some assurance, the designer may take his pencil and begin to draw the units in their proper position upon or about the inceptive axis with the point of concentration correctly placed in position in the inceptive axis. Rules and suggestions for this execution have been previously given.

(i) Designing of the Units.

1. How should the units be drawn to be in harmony with the inceptive axis, the contours, and to each other?

The above points of approach to surface enrichment represent a logical reasoning process which supplies a line of sequential and developmental pictures that will reduce to a minimum the element of doubt and fog through which the average designer approaches his problem. The steps will, in time, become practically automatic and may be thought out in a surprisingly short period of time.

Rule 11c. The type of design unit for large masses should be bolder than similar designs for small primary masses.

As may be expected from briefly considering the illustrations for this chapter as compared with those for small primary masses, Chapter XIII, it is seen that the units for base and precious metals are larger and bolder than those used for smaller masses. The more effective designs are those whose appropriateness, simplicity, and correct structural proportions and relations appeal to our sense of fitness and beauty.

Figures 403, 404, and 406 are composed of projects designed mainly on vertical inceptive axes or center lines. The freely balanced natural units in Figure 403 have the zone of enrichment in the upper portion of the appendage (handles), and the point of concentration in the upper portion of the zone of enrichment. Formal symmetrical balance controls the placing of enrichment in Figure 404. Initial letters, through lack of consideration of design principles, are frequently misplaced on masses with little or no consideration given to their mass relations with the structural contours. As a contrast to this, notice the carefully considered relations between the letter W on the tea strainer in Figure 404 and its adaptation to the contours of the appendage. The stone enrichment on the handle of the paper cutter in Figure 404 in no way interferes with its use as a cutter and is therefore appropriate as surface enrichment.

The pierced enrichment of the silver box in Figure 405 contains vertical and horizontal lines which bring the decorative human figures into harmonious relation with the structural contours. Figure 406 shows both formal and free balance with center and full surface zones of enrichment. C and D could have been improved by a more strongly marked point of concentration which would have added more character to the designs.

In Chapter VIII, the contour terminal enrichment problem was described at some length. Many illustrations on Plates 58, 59, and 60 are, in a way, similar in their type of surface decoration, which is termed surface terminal enrichment. The "happy ending" mentioned in Chapter VIII as a suitable means of terminating the contour of a long primary mass or appendage may be similarly treated by suitable surface enrichment, particularly shown in Figures 403, 404, 407, 408, 409, and 410. The terminal is quite common as a zone of enrichment.

It is readily seen that when surface enrichment is the prevailing decorative theme it becomes necessary to subordinate contour enrichment to it, Rule 10b, otherwise the strife for dominance arising between these two forms of enrichment will lead to poor and ornate design, Figure 417. Whatever contour enrichment is used must be chosen to accord with the surface enrichment, Rule 10d, as noted in the preceding figures and in Figure 411. Here we find the closest connection, as the chased forms of the surface at many points merge into the contour. Thus surface and contour are bound together in unity with the surface enrichment, which maintains its dominance throughout.

The simple and dignified treatment of the fire set in Figure 413 is synonymous with the finest type of enrichment for service and beauty, Rule 11b. The peacock motives of Figures 414 and 415 are applied to the desk set. The motives as used in this case are generally well adapted to their respective areas and inceptive axes.

Rule 11f. Repulsive forms should not be introduced into surface enrichment.

Figure 417 is a typical example of over-ornamentation with the surface and contour enrichment struggling in deadly conflict for prominence. In the combat, the natural structural axis has been totally neglected for irrelevant and disconnected ornament. Figure 418 illustrates correctly related surface ornament, with a dominance of the latter form, Rule 10b. Figure 419 represents a type of decoration presumably roughened to meet the needs of service. It proves, however, to be unpleasant to the touch and unnecessary as the plain knob is preferable in every way. The naturalistic snake motive of Figure 421 is repulsive to many people; this and similar decorative motives should be avoided in preference to the more conventionalized pattern of Figure 422, Rule 11f.

Rule 11e. Two periods of historic ornament should not be introduced into the same design.

It is impossible to close these chapters without reference to the influence of the great schools of architectural history upon contemporary design. There is a growing tendency for manufacturers to use period patterns in house decorations which correspond to the design of the building. A Colonial building frequently calls for Colonial hardware, a Gothic church for corresponding surface enrichment of that period.

As introductory illustrations, Figure 423 stands as a simple example of accented (beveled) contour while Figure 424 has been accented with reminiscent moulding appropriate to Colonial architecture. They might, however, be used with many simply designed articles of furniture. From this slight indication or portion of a style, we have a more pronounced beginning in Figure 425 with its clearly marked Greek egg and dart ornamental border. The acanthus leaf of the Byzantine school, Figure 426, changes to the geometric arabesques of the Moorish school in Figure 427. The Gothic arch, cusps, and quatrefoil of Figure 428 are changed to the classic acanthus foliage of the French Renaissance period. Figure 429. Figures 430 and 431 are later developments of the Renaissance. The heavily enriched Flemish pattern completes our illustrations of the use of past forms of ornamentation applied to modern designs. Only a small number from a rapidly enlarging field of period design are shown.

With circular plates and trays, the enrichment normally takes the form of a border (marginal enrichment), with the inceptive axes or center lines of the repeated units radiating from the center of the circle. Figures 433, 435, 436, 437, 438, and 439. An elliptical form frequently calls for handles and terminal enrichment as shown by Figure 434.

Both Figures 437 and 438 have divided points of concentration and would be materially improved by the omission of the center unit A. The small tree used as a connecting link in the border of Figure 437 should be reversed, as it now possesses a motion or growth contrary to the larger tree units. The contour enrichment in Figure 438 could well be omitted or moved around to support the surface enrichment. The pierced enrichment A, Figure 439, is incorrectly used as it is not designed to be seen from above, the normal viewpoint of the tray. The design should have been based upon the horizontal axis of the project similar to Figure 439 at B.

Differing from the shallow plate, with the increased height of the low cylindrical forms of Plate 62, there now develops the possibility of enriching the sides of this class of project: a zone of enrichment not readily accessible in the shallow plate form. In addition to the sides there remain the appendages, quite capable of carrying enrichment to advantage. One should control the zone of enrichment in such a manner that the attention will not be equally drawn to both appendage and primary mass. Two points of enrichment, both calling for equal attention, divide the interest in the problem, and cause a lack of unity or oneness.

Rule 11d. The eye should be attracted to one principal zone of enrichment, whether located upon the primary mass, appendage, terminals, links, or details. All other zones should be subordinate to this area.

Enrichment upon the appendages may be found in Figures 440, 441, 442, 445, and on the upper portion of the straight sides of the primary mass in Figures 443 and 444. The decorative units composing the border on these straight sides are designed upon the vertical element of the underlying cylindrical form as the inceptive axis. The enrichment for the appendage is well related to the contour of that member and is commonly based upon the center line of the appendage.

The principles of enriching these higher cylindrical forms in many ways closely parallel those which govern the lower cylindrical forms. The inceptive axes of the decoration on the two vases of Figures 446 and 447 may be readily analyzed as vertical elements of the cylinder. Figures 448 and 449 are quite rare exceptions of the accentuation of the vertical lines of the cylinder. Horizontal bands similar to Figures 444 and 447 are more common interpretations of cylinder enrichment. Figure 450 marks a successful combination of two dissimilar materials with the shade (appendage) as the dominating enriched member. Rule 10c.

The small chased bosses used as enrichment in Figure 452 are re-echoed on the several pieces of the set which binds them into collective unity. The top portion of the primary mass seems to need some form of enrichment, as the contour adds little to the beauty of that part. The symbol X could have been better located by being moved to that place. The point of concentration should be placed in the upper portion of a large mass whenever that arrangement is possible.

It is in every way desirable that all designs should be executed full size and in full accord with the requirements of a shop working drawing. In addition the technical rendering suggested in Chapter XIII should be carefully used in each drawing.

INSTRUCTION SHEET

Plates 68 and 72 show problems suitable for class presentation. The method of development is similar to that presented on Plate 52.

SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS

(a) Draw a primary mass with reference to its proper grouping as follows:

For flat areas draw square, rectangle, etc.

For shallow circular forms draw a circle.

For low cylindrical forms draw a rectangle with horizontal proportions.

For high cylindrical forms draw a rectangle with vertical proportions.

(b) Locate zone of service.

(c) Locate zone of enrichment: appendages, terminals, margins, full surface, etc.

(d) Determine amount of enrichment.

(e) Locate inceptive axes.

(f) Place point of concentration in the inceptive axis where it traverses the zone of enrichment.

(g) Select the decorative process suited to the material and contemplated motive.

(h) Draw leading lines toward the point of concentration.

(i) Draw conventionalized design motives based upon the leading lines, converging toward the point of concentration. Vary the contours to be sympathetically related to these design motives, provided such variation of the original primary mass is necessary to complete unity.

(j) Add additional views, dimension, and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use.

SUGGESTED PROBLEM

Design a copper nut bowl and spoon. Enrich with a chased border appropriate to the subject. Enrich spoon, using fitting method of enrichment. The bowl and spoon should have a harmonious relation.

SUMMARY OF RULES

Surface Enrichment of Large Primary Masses

Rule 11a. The preliminary steps toward surface enrichment should be thought out before they are drawn.

Rule 11b. Conservative application should mark the use of surface enrichment of large masses. Its use should: (1) lighten or soften necessarily heavy construction; (2) support or apparently strengthen good structure; (3) add interest to large unbroken and uninteresting surfaces.

Rule 11c. The type of design unit for large masses should be bolder than similar designs for small primary masses.

Rule 11d. The eye should be attracted to one principal zone of enrichment, whether located upon the primary mass, appendage, terminal, links, or details. All other zones should be subordinate to this area.

Rule 11e. Two periods of historic ornament should not be introduced into the same design.

Rule 11f. Repulsive forms should not be introduced into surface enrichment.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Contrast the method of enriching large and small areas of base and precious metals. Illustrate. What is the character of surface enrichment for large areas?

2. Name three essentials to good surface design for base and precious metals. Illustrate each.

3. Give nine steps necessary for the complete evolution of surface enrichment.

4. Name method of classifying the structural forms of metal into four groups. How does this compare with the classification of clay forms?

5. Between which two groups does the transition from a horizontal to a vertical primary mass occur?

6. Is there a perceptible change in the surface enrichment paralleling this change in proportions of the primary mass?

7. In which group or groups is the relation between surface and contour enrichment closest?

8. Give the characteristics of surface enrichment designed for flat or semi-flat planes.

9. State the value of the terminal as an enrichment zone.

10. Discuss common errors in the surface enrichment of hardware and their correction.

11. In what manner does historic ornament influence industrial design? Why?

12. Give characteristics of surface enrichment designed for, (a) large, shallow circular forms; (b) large, low cylindrical forms; (c) large, high cylindrical forms.

13. How does the point from which the article is to be seen affect the character of the design?

Chapter XV
COLOR: HUE, VALUE, AND CHROMA; STAINS

In the previous chapters we have developed problems dealing with proportions, contours, and surface enrichment. The use of color, particularly in surface enrichment, is equally important inasmuch as its use is often necessary to bring the project, as for example a piece of furniture, into harmony with the surroundings which furnish its final color environment. The incorrect use of color may seriously mar a project otherwise correctly designed in line and form, and may also weaken its influence in a particular setting.

While there are a number of excellent systems of color notation, it is well to bear in mind that a color system, however excellent, is a good servant but a poor master. It is nevertheless considered as essential to have a definite knowledge of some systematically developed color system in order that we may methodically apply color to the structural form with some degree of certainty.

For rendering drawings of problems involving the use of color it is suggested that the beginner use the tempera, or opaque colors now on the market. These colors readily adapt themselves to the average problem, while their rich hues are more successful than those produced from the ordinary water colors. Tubes of cobalt blue, ultramarine, light chrome yellow, vermilion, emerald green, crimson madder, black, and white will serve to solve the problems demanded by this chapter.

White is used to lighten and black to darken the pigments, which should be mixed with water to the consistency of cream, and applied to cover well the surface of the paper. One should guard against a thin, transparent wash, as the desired effect is a velvety opaque and evenly tinted surface only possible with the thick application of color. The pigment will dry out about one-quarter lighter than when first applied. The usual school color box of three pigments is useful for rendering wood stains. These pigments may be used in thin flat washes and will exhibit a transparent effect analogous to the effect of a wood stain. The natural color of wood may be first represented and, when dry, followed by a second thin wash of the hue of the wood stain.

Lacking as we are in a definite color nomenclature or standards, it now becomes necessary to describe the processes and define the terms necessary to the designer.

Hue is the technical name for color; a change of color means a change of hue. For the designer's purposes we will select twelve equally graded colors or hues from the spectrum and term them standard hues. Each hue will have twenty-seven modifications or gradations, which is a sufficient number for our purpose. These gradations are to be graphically recorded by and contained in a diagram to be known as a hue rectangle. There are twelve of these rectangles, one for each of the selected hues, and they are found arranged in sequence in Figure 454.

By referring to Figure 455, it is seen that the twelve selected standard hues are represented at what is termed full chromatic intensity, which, to the designer, means hues of the full strength of his color pigment. This is far short of the true color intensity of the spectrum, but for industrial arts purposes these hues are strong enough to serve as standards for comparison and classification. The hues should be evenly graded from red at the left to red violet at the right without noticeable unevenness in the gradations. Red violet is the link which connects the right end with the left, thus completing the circuit of the twelve hues. The following pigment table gives name and symbol of various hues.

It now becomes imperative to locate each standard hue at its definite place in each rectangle. This invariably occurs at a predetermined point in the left vertical boundary of the rectangle of that hue. From inspection of Figure 455, it is quickly seen that violet seems to be the darkest hue; yellow the lightest, with the others between these hues. This variation of what is termed their value gives us a guide to their proper placing in the hue rectangle.

Value is that quality by which we may distinguish a dark hue from a light one. For design purposes we will imagine the hue rectangle to grade from white at the top to black at the bottom. We will draw horizontal lines or steps across the rectangle, marking nine even value steps from white to black; the top one to be termed White (W), followed by High Light (HL); Light (L); Low Light (LL); Middle (M); High Dark (HD); Dark (D); Low Dark (LD); and Black (B). These value steps may be thought of as a scale of gray or neutral values descending the right boundary of the hue rectangle. They have been roughly indicated in the hue rectangle at the left of Figure 454.

Each standard hue may now be located in the left boundary of its hue rectangle and opposite its neutral gray equivalent in the right boundary. If the standard hue is accurately determined by the designer, it will be of exactly the same value as its gray equivalent given in the "value" column of the pigment table. The small arrows leading from Figure 455 to 454 show where four standard hues are located; the remaining hues are located in the left circle of each successive row in the remaining rectangles, and upon their respective value lines. Standard hues are expressed by the symbols in the right column of the pigment table.

Each standard pigment or hue may be thinned with opaque white to lighten it, forming what is known as a tint of that hue. Red, in Figure 454, reaching its full chromatic intensity at the value High Dark, may be lightened four times before it ultimately arrives at white. Each step is to be considered as occurring in the left hand boundary of the rectangle above the standard hue, and is to be recorded by the symbols, R-M: R-LL: R-L: R-HL. Orange yellow has only one possible tint. Strawberry, light lavender, rose, etc., are merely nicknames for various tints.

Each standard hue may be darkened by the application of black, thus forming shades of that hue. Red is capable of producing two shades, R-D and R-LD, which are placed in the left boundary of the hue rectangle below the standard hue. Browns, russets, and dark tans are shades of different hues.

These modifications of the standard hues into tints and shades give to the designer simple variations of his too brilliant standards. But even these modifications are not sufficiently grayed for staining or painting large wood or wall surfaces. There is a brilliancy and glare about certain tints which require modification. The shades are safer for use on large areas. The remaining space in the interior of the hue rectangle is to be devoted to the last gradation of the standard hue.