[I'-2] Soon after leaving Conejos the party crossed Rio San Antonio, or San Antonio cr. (the main branch of Rio Conejos), below the confluence of Los Pinos cr., past places of both these names, and at lat. 37° N. went from the present State of Colorado into the present Territory of New Mexico. This river heads E. of the Tierra Amarilla, in the mountain range of which Brazos Peak, over 11,000 feet, is a conspicuous elevation. The most notable feature of the day is Cerro San Antonio, nearly 11,000 feet high, standing out from the range. They skirted its E. base, among the hills of which Pike speaks, between it and the Buffalo buttes, as the D. and R. G. R. R. now does, and where is the station Volcano. S. W. of the peak are the Ortiz hills. Camp was set at or near the present station Tres Piedras (Three Rocks).

[I'-3] Or Rio Caliente, as the name of the stream is now usually rendered. This is formed by various tributaries from the N. and N. W. (Rita Servilleta, Vallecita, etc.), and joins the Rio Chama from the W., about 5 m. above their common entrance into the Rio Grande opp. San Juan. There are various other hot or warm springs than the one at which Pike stopped, and this one is 10 m. or so W. of the railroad station called Ojo Caliente. At various points near the Rio Grande, at a considerable distance to Pike's left, are numerous isolated elevations, some of which are Cerros Olla, Chifle, Montoso, Cristobal, Taoses, and Orejas. Since Pike entered New Mexico, on crossing lat. 37° on the 28th, his route has been practically along the W. border of Taos Co., so named from the well-known Tañoan pueblo or town of Taos, frequently mentioned by him as Tons, Tous, Toas, etc., as his printer happened to fancy, while his engraver made it "Yaos" on the map of New Spain. This is on a branch of Taos cr.; when Pike passes its latitude to-day, he is about 20 m. W. of it. Some places passed along Caliente cr., to his right, are Petaca, Servilleta, and Cueva Springs. The name Taos has several different implications: for a river, Rio de Taos; for the country through which this river flows; for a town at the junction of its principal forks, otherwise San Fernandez; for a place 3 m. S. E. of this, Rancho de Taos; and for another place about the same distance N. E., Pueblo de Taos. San Fernandez de Taos was a Mexican adobe town, which had some 600-800 pop. in 1846, and was the capital of the Department of Taos. The old Indian pueblo of Taos, to which the insurgents had retreated Jan. 7th, 1847, after the skirmishes of Cañada and Embuda, became noted during the war as the scene of a bloody siege and capture: see Ex. Doc. No. 41, 30th Cong., 1st Sess., pub. 1848, p. 457.

In approaching the subject of the New Mexican Pueblo Indians it is necessary at the outset to free the mind from the traditional error that because these live in towns known as "pueblos," therefore they are one kind of Indians. I shall recur to the subject in a later connection. Here I wish to cite an early instance of the recognition of an all-important ethnological fact on the part of Lieutenant James H. Simpson, U. S. T. E., whose interesting Journal of a Military Reconnaissance from Santa Fé, New Mexico, to the Navajo country, etc., in 1849, was published in 1850 as one of the collection of papers forming Ex. Doc. No. 64, 31st Congr., 1st Sess., 8vo, Washington, pp. 56-168, many pll. and maps. He speaks on p. 57 of "the singular and, as I believe, the hitherto unknown fact ... that among the 10,000 (estimated) Pueblo Indians who inhabit New Mexico, as many as six distinct dialects obtain, no one showing anything more than the faintest, if any, indications of a cognate origin with the other." He sharply but justly brings to book the English author Ruxton, for the grossly erroneous statement (Mex. and the R. Mts., p. 194) that "the Indians of northern Mexico, including the Pueblos, belong to the same family—the Apache.... All these speak dialects of the same language, more or less approximating to the Apache, and of all of which the idiomatic structure is the the same." A statement more at variance from the facts in the case could hardly be penned. Those Pueblo Indians whom Pike now or presently meets represent two distinct linguistic families, the Keresan and the Tañoan; and we shall have several others to note in due course. The influence of the church upon the pueblo system has of course not escaped well-informed ethnographers, but I suspect they have not always given it full credit for the hand it had in first founding, then maintaining in misery, and finally fetching to grief, some of these sorry settlements of inoffensive Indians, who had escaped the Apaches on one side and the Navajos on the other, to be herded about some mud joss-house and fleeced as fast as they acquired any substance worth stealing. The business began early, and the way of it is something of a historical curiosity. A man named Alessandro Farnese—the one who was pope 1534-49, and who undertook to regulate the morals of various persons, besides Henry VIII., with indifferent success—once made a discovery so astonishing that he must have been inspired. Papa Paulo III. promptly published his find in a bull which was only saved from being Irish by the fact that it was Latin: for this ethnological pronunciamento a todos los fieles cristianos, que las presentes letras vieren declared in due and solemn form que los indios son hombres y capaces de sacramentos—i. e., told all the faithful to whom this exquisite tomfoolery came that Indians were human and could be humbugged. That was June 9th, 1537, and that settled it—the hint was enough to set upon the savages the horde of corrupt, profligate, and extortionate ecclesiastics who have cursed the country from that day to this. The first business of these people was always to build a church in which to brandish the crucifix at those who had escaped the tomahawk, and pray for the souls of those whose superstitions were thus played upon while their property was preyed upon—for churches cannot be built and priests supported unless somebody sweats for it. I hardly think that Indians thus huddled around a church, in abject terror alike of their natural and their supernatural enemies, outside and inside the pueblo, were any better off for self-defense than they would have been had they been left to their natural resources—though many have so fancied; for the numerical strength of such an aggregation would have been just as effective without that edifice, and tame Indians are no match for wild ones. The process of converting an Indian to Christianity simply mixes his metaphors and muddles his mind, by substituting for the superstitions he thinks he understands other mysteries which the priests themselves declare to be incomprehensible. The advantage of this to the Indian is not easily discerned, and some of its disadvantages are obvious. For example, the priests are responsible for a considerable amount of fornication and fœticide—I do not mean so much by their personal habits as by their keeping so many of their parishioners too poor to pay for marriages and baptisms. By the year 1680, the papal plan and the church method had worked so well that the converted Indians undertook to prove themselves men, capable of the very real sacrament of manhood; for they revolted against the intolerable yoke, killed a great many of their oppressors, and drove these ill-omened birds of prey from their repast for a while.

[I'-4] Pike joins Rio Caliente with the Chama (Conejos in the text, by error) too near Ojo Caliente and too far from San Juan, but the sum of his figures is about right. Rio Caliente does not seem to be as well populated now as it was in his day; Los Gallegos is a present place on this stream. The confluence of the two is at the point of a butte, with the Black mesa immediately to the left or E.; some of the present places thence to the Rio Grande are Cuchilla, Chili, and San José, all on the W. side of Rio Chama, off his route, and not noted by him; the site of Chama itself was on the other side, near the mouth. The St. John's of the text, charted "Sⁿ Juan 1000," is the Tañoan pueblo San Juan, pop. now 400. He crosses to this place on the E. side of the Rio Grande, where there was a ford or ferry; the railroad crosses there now, at Española.

[I'-5] I have not succeeded in identifying Baptiste Lalande. One Alexis Lalande (his × mark) appears among signers of a document executed at St. Louis, Oct. 30th, 1819; and on Sept. 16th, 1809, the same was one of a jury that convicted John Long of murdering one George Gordon the previous June 26th; and Alexis subsequently swore he neither spoke nor knew English. The William Morrison of the same paragraph is easily discovered. He was the oldest one of several brothers who came from Doylestown, Bucks Co., Pa.; had been associated with his uncle, Guy Bryan, in business in Philada.; came to Kaskaskia about 1785, and became prominent as a merchant there, in Cahokia, and in St. Louis; married (1) a lady of Illinois; (2) in 1813, a daughter of General Daniel Bissell, U. S. A.; died 1837, at Kaskaskia; was grandfather of Hon. William R. Morrison. (Billon's Annals, 1804-1821, pub. 1888, p. 219.)

[I'-6] In the orig. ed. this paragraph appears as Doc. No. 7, p. 69, of the App. to Pt. 3, to which Pike refers the reader by a footnote. But as it is out of place there, and also so short, I simply run it into the present and proper context.

[I'-7] The defective itinerary of Mar. 3d requires attention. We see that Pike crossed the river to San Juan, whence he goes down the E. side to Santa Fé. But first for the places he marks on the W. side within the distance to Santa Fé, and which are: 1. Abicu, pop. 500; 2. Cia, pop. 450; and 3. Gomez, pop. 500. 1. Abicu is marked as if it stood near the mouth of Rio Chama, in the vicinity of present San Antonio and San José; but its exact location is not difficult to discover. For this is the town now called Abiquiu, 20 m. by the road up the Rio Chama from the Rio Grande, on the S. side of the Chama, at the mouth of Frijoles (Beans) cr. It is on the long and well-known trail which led up the valley of the Chama and so on over the mountains en route to Los Angeles, Cal. 2. Cia or Sia is a Keresan pueblo, with a present pop. of about 100. 3. Gomez is the Tañoan pueblo Jemez, misplaced too near the Rio Grande: see note beyond for this and for Cia. The Jemez trail from San Ildefonso passes the ruins of an old pueblo (called by the Spanish equivalent Pueblo Viejo), on the edge of the mesa, say 1½ m. W. of the Rio Grande and 5 m. S. W. of San Ildefonso. There is also within this distance the Tañoan pueblo of Santa Clara, with a present pop. of over 200, on the W. side of the Rio Grande, a mile below the mouth of Santa Clara cr. From San Juan to Santa Fé there are or were two roads; a lower, which hugs the Rio Grande for some distance before it turns away from the river, and an upper, more direct course, probably that which Pike took. In either case, he crossed the two small streams or arroyos now known as Cañada and Nambe. Along his route he passed three villages, which are marked on the map and mentioned without name in the text. 1. The first of these, Santa Cruz, 5 or 6 m. from San Juan, is marked on the map "Village 1200"; in 1846 it had only 300 or 400. It is situated on the Cañada near its mouth; higher up on the same are the Chimayo settlements and Potrero. 2. The next, 7¼ m. further, mapped as "Village 600," is Pojoaque or Pojuaque, a Tañoan pueblo situated about 6 m. up Nambe cr. At the mouth of this stream stood and stands another Tañoan pueblo, San Ildefonso; while Nambe, yet another village of the same family, was located on the same creek about 3 m. above Pojoaque. These have all declined during the century, the Indian pop. of Pojoaque being lately given as 20, that of San Ildefonso 148, that of Nambe 79. 3. The next village, "17 m." further, marked on the map "Village 600," is Tesuque (Tesugue, Zesuqua, etc.), likewise a Tañoan pueblo, now of less than 100 Indians. There appear to have been two establishments of this name, 3 or 4 m. apart, both on a branch of Nambe cr.; the furthest on, falling in best with Pike's 17 m. from Pojoaque, is only some 6 m. from Santa Fé. Between Pojoaque and Tesuque Pike passed by Cuyamanque or Cuyamunge: and he entered Santa Fé from the N., by the site of old Fort Marcy.

It should be particularly observed in this place that Pike has two maps of this part of the Rio Grande, which are discrepant in several material respects. One is his Louisiana map, which he runs down to take in the Rio Grande to Santa Fé. On this his trail is dotted as if it were the lower one, hugging the Rio Grande from Santa Cruz past Santa Clara (and Polvaredo) to San Ildefonso, before it turned off to Santa Fé, and with the above three villages all on his left as he passed; the above village of Abicu is lettered Abricu, and a certain village of "Pino" is set at the mouth of Rio Santa Fé. I have here gone by his New Spain map, which may be presumed to be his best delineation of Rio Grande country, and which certainly fits in best with the text which we here follow.

To finish reckoning the towns Pike maps north of Santa Fé, we must note the following: 1. "Enbudo 500" on both maps. 2. "Tranpa 450" on one map, and "Tramha 450" on the other. 3. "Pecucio 500" on one map, and "Pecucis 500" on the other. These places all lie off to the N. E., in the direction of Taos. 1. Embudo or Embuda is a town on a creek of the same name, which makes into the Rio Grande from the E., about 25 m. by the road from San Juan. The location is a couple of miles above the mouth of the creek, which falls into the Rio Grande at a place called Rinconada on account of its cornered or shut-in site among the surrounding mesas. It is near the scene of an engagement in Jan., 1847, when Captain John H. K. Burgwin of the 1st U. S. Dragoons defeated the insurgents; he died Feb. 7th of wounds received Feb. 4th in the assault on Taos. 2. Trampas is a town on the creek of that name, a main tributary of the Embudo, 8 or 10 m. above the town of Embudo. You pass Trampas about halfway on the main upper road from Santa Fé to Taos, about 7 m. N. of Truchas. 3. Picuris is an old Tañoan pueblo, on another branch of this same Embudo cr., with a present pop. of 100.

All the foregoing places are under the shadow of the lofty mountains to the E., whence the several streams named also make down into the Rio Grande valley. Some of their peaks are: Lake, 12,400 feet; Baldy, 12,600 feet; the Cone, 12,700 feet; Truches, 13,100 feet; and the more isolated "U. S." mountain, 10,700 feet. On the other side of this range are the headwaters of Rio Cañada—that great fork of the Arkansaw better known as the "Canadian" r., without the tilde: see note¹⁷, p. 558.

[I'-8] Santa Fé is not "on the Rio Grande," as often loosely said, but at least 20 m. (direct) E. of that river, and considerably further than this up from the mouth of the small stream on which it is situated, in a rather out-of-the-way place. This creek, Rio de Santa Fé, or Rio Chacito, comes down from the lofty Santa Fé mts. under which the town nestles, and runs with a general S. W. course into the Rio Grande between the town of Peña Blanca and the old pueblo of Cochiti—places 3 m. apart. Cochiti is a Keresan pueblo on the W. bank of the Rio Grande; present pop. perhaps 250. Peña Blanca, often called Piña Blanca, on the E. bank, is a place where the Rio Grande can be forded, to take the old road from Santa Fé to Fort Wingate.

Santa Fé was first entered and occupied by the Army of the West under General Stephen Watts Kearny, Aug. 18th, 1846—his cowardly Excellency Don Manuel Armijo having blustered and promptly evacuated the place on the approach of our forces. The site of Fort Marcy was selected by Lieutenants W. H. Emory and J. F. Gilmer, in a commanding position 600 yards from the plaza of the town, and the work began on the 23d. On Sept. 22d General Kearny issued his manifesto for the government of New Mexico, under the authority of the President of the United States; appointing as governor Charles Bent (soon afterward cruelly massacred at Taos), and as secretary Donaciano Vigil; other territorial officers appointed were Richard Dallum, Francis P. Blair, Charles Blummer, Eugene Lertensdorfer, Joab Houghton, Antonio José Otero, and Carl Bavbien—the last three as judges of the supreme court. A copy of the original document, in Spanish, is given in Lieutenant J. W. Abert's report Ex. Doc. No. 41, 30th Cong., 1st Sess., pub. 1848, p. 453. The population of Santa Fé at that time was somewhere about 3,000; it is now only a little over 6,000. It was probably the site of a pueblo before 1500; but the present town has no authentic history back of 1608, when it was founded by Juan de Oñate as a capital or seat of government. The town may boast an unbroken record as such from that day to this, in spite of changing hands several times.

[I'-9] Lieutenant J. W. Abert supposes that these were those long known as the parroquia or parish church, and the capilla de los soldados or military chapel: Ex. Doc. No. 41, 30th Cong., 1st Sess., pub. 1848, p. 454, where an account of them and services held in them, as these were in 1846, may be read. A plate shows the parish church, with "Fort Marez" (Marcy) in the distance.

[I'-10] The governor's certificate and Pike's remonstrance, here in mention, were given in the App. to Pt. 3, of which they formed Docs. Nos. 9 and 8, and will be found in due course, beyond.

[I'-11] Pike has the thing all right, but under a curious name I never saw elsewhere, and might not have recognized, had I not happened to hear cojinillo myself in New Mexico. This word is probably provincial or dialectal, as it is not found in ordinary Sp. dictionaries; in form it is a diminutive of cojin, name of a certain saddle-pad or cushion, precisely equivalent to E. "pillion." It turns up now and then in books about Mexico, as for example: "The corazas [covers] of travelling saddles are also provided with several pockets called coginillos—a most excellent contrivance for carrying a lunch or a bottle, or anything to which convenient access may be desired," Gregg, Comm. Pra., I. 1844, p. 214.

[I'-12] Marked "Vitior 200" on Pike's map. I do not recognize this name, but it is easy to pick out Pike's road to San Domingo, which he reaches to-morrow, and locate his Vitior at or within a mile of a place on the Rio Santa Fé now called La Bajada, which is 7¾ m. from San Domingo. In starting from Santa Fé for the Rio Grande at this point, you do not follow down the creek (Rio de Santa Fé or Rio Chacito), but bear away from it on higher ground between it and Arroyo Hondo, pass a little place called Agua Fria, and then have a choice of two roads. One of these bears off more to the left, and strikes the creek at the hamlet of Cieneguilla, whence you follow the creek in the cañon to La Bajada; but the straighter road keeps on S. W., crosses the creek higher up, cuts across the mesa south of Tetilla Peak, and suddenly pitches down into the creek at the mouth of the cañon, where La Bajada is situated. This is what I suppose Pike means by saying he ascended a hill and then descended a precipice. If he went that way, he rode 15 m. from Santa Fé to "Vitior" or La Bajada. (See Vitior in Index.)

[I'-13] Present Santo Domingo, or San Domingo, is at the mouth of Galisteo cr., with the pueblo immediately below it, on the E. bank of the Rio Grande, 4 or 5 m. below Peña Blanca. Pike charts it by name, and lays down this creek. The plate opp. p. 462 of Lieutenant Abert's report shows the pueblo as it was in 1846. Part of the road from Santa Fé to San Domingo was bad, on account of the rocks in the cañon of the little stream, and the sandy dunes near the pueblo. On getting out of the cañon onto the plain, Pike had on his left the Sandia range, while ahead, but somewhat to the right, rose the Jemez mts. The Galisteo was probably quite dry. There were no trees to be seen till the cottonwood fringe of the Rio Grande came into view. The pueblo did not vary much for a century. It had about 800 pop. when I passed through in 1864; a very recent census yielded 690. As Pike says, these Indians are "of the nation of Keres," i. e., of the Keresan family. Had he taken the ford across the Rio Grande, which was used here at times when the water was not more than three or four feet deep, though 300 yards wide, and gone westward about 26 m. to the Rio Jemez, he would have come upon the Tañoan town of Jemez, a dead-alive little place, which has held its population of 400 or 500 for many generations, and long sustained its old adobe church. Twelve miles above Jemez, at a place on the river called Ojos Calientes from its hot springs, were and may still be seen the ruins of another church, a view of which, as they appeared in 1849, is given on pl. 15 of Simpson's report already cited. Jemez is the place Pike means by the "Gomez 300" which he charts; only it is located too near the Rio Grande on his map. (See Santo Domingo in Index.)

[I'-14] Marked "Sⁿ. Philip de queres 1000" on the map, on the W. side of the Rio Grande. This is the pueblo of San Felipe, situated 7 m. S. of San Domingo, opp. the mouth of Tuerto cr., which falls in from the E., a little below the gulch or ravine called Arroyo del Espinazo. The town of Covero, or Cubero, is 5 m. above, on the same (W.) side of the Rio Grande. The large stream which Pike lays down on that side, just below his St. Philip's, is the Rio Jemez, which falls in between Algodones and Bernalillo. The word "queres" of the map is the same as Keres of the above text; i. e., San Felipe is a town of the Keresan nation. The place is on the W. side of the Rio Grande, which here straitens to 100 yards or so, about 6 m. above Algodones. Pike's town was no doubt the present San Felipe—the one at the foot of the mesa, and not that commonly called old San Felipe, about a mile off, upon the edge of the mesa; for this was in ruins half a century if not a century ago, and the pueblos are all slow to change, either for better or worse. It has taken nearly 100 years to reduce San Felipe from the population which Pike estimated at 1000 to the 550 of a very recent census. It has been more Mexicanized than some of the other Indian towns. Lieutenant Abert, speaking of the bridge which Pike mentions, says that when he was there, Oct. 10th, 1846, it had been entirely swept away, and the people had to ford the Rio Grande. The plate opp. p. 461 of his report shows some of them in the act. Another view of San Felipe is given in the same volume, opp. p. 39, in the report of Lieutenant W. H. Emory, who says that "the hardships, trials, and perseverance of the gallant Pike" came forcibly to his mind when he first caught sight of the Rio Grande, Sept. 2d, 1846, at San Domingo, whose population he judged to be about 600.

[I'-15] Marked "S Dies 500" on the map, on the E. side of the Rio Grande, to which Pike recrossed from San Felipe. The Spanish form would be San Diaz, but the pueblo is best known as Sandia or Zandia, a name also applied to the great mountain which rises on the E. As a Spanish word, sandia means "watermelon," and appeared in print as the name of this village in 1626. The aboriginal name of the pueblo is Nafiap, and its mission name was Nuestra Señora de los Dolores de Sandia. This is a Tañoan town, with a present population of about 150. The situation is 12 m. above Albuquerque. Pike speaks of two small hamlets he passed to reach St. Dies. In 1864, when I passed over the road, there was a mean place called Algodones, of 30 or 40 houses and some 200 or 300 people, and 6 m. below this was a rather better one named Bernalillo. This is doubtless what Pike charts as "S Bernilla 500." Bernalillo is present name of a station of the A., T., and S. F. R. R. Simpson relates that when he passed Sandia in 1849 he noticed in the space of a mile northward from the pueblo some 60 or 70 piles of stones which were said to mark the places where as many Navajos had fallen in battle with the Pueblonians some years before.

[I'-16] Old Albuquerque, to be distinguished from the present contiguous or adjacent city of the same name, one of the best-known places on the Rio Grande between Santa Fé and El Paso. In coming to this town Pike passed sites of several places now named, though none of any note—as Corrales (on the opposite or W. side of the river, whence there is a road 18⅔ m. to pueblo of Cebolleta); Alameda (where the river could be crossed to strike the Corrales-Cebolleta road); Ranchos d'Albuquerque; Los Griegos; and finally Candelaria. The word Albuquerque, or more properly Alboquerque, is the same as the name of the very celebrated Portuguese son of Mars and soldier of fortune, Affonso d'Alboquerque, who flourished in the latter part of the fifteenth century and early in the sixteenth (b. 1453, d. Dec. 16th, 1515). It is commonly pronounced on the spot Albykirky, and sometimes Albykirk. The old town was in existence about 1700, and now has some 1,750 pop.; the new one is a thing of yesterday, so to speak, but already a notable railroad center, capital of Bernalillo Co., with nearly 4,000 pop., and scheduled as 58 m. from Santa Fé. Near Albuquerque there was a ford to a place called Atrisco, whence the road led westward to Fort Wingate; while eastward from Albuquerque a road went to the Tijeras cañon, which marks off the Sandia range proper from the elevation S. of this cañon called Monte Largo. Tijeras cr., when it runs, falls into the Rio Grande about 8 m. below Albuquerque. Sandival, a place that appears on various maps, was Sandival's hacienda, a couple of miles S. of Albuquerque, on an upper and dryer road than the one usually taken southward.

[I'-17] No crossing of the Rio Grande is indicated on Pike's map anywhere along here, his trail being dotted continuously on the E. side of the river. But it is quite certain that he crossed a little below old Albuquerque to Atrisco. There was here a ford, regularly used when the water was not too high. The railroad now crosses some miles lower down, between Isleta station and Isleta. Atrisco was a very well-known name, in consequence of the ford, before the days of the railroads, but is hardly to be found on ordinary maps of to-day. When I first crossed the Rio Grande, June 23d, 1864, our outfit was ferried over some 20 m. below Albuquerque, between places called Los Pinos on the E. and Las Lunas on the W. "Los Pinos" is short for Bosque or Alamo de los Pinos, as they called the large fine grove of cottonwoods there, but I do not think there were any pines. A couple of miles below was the hacienda of Mariano Chavez, brother of the unfortunate A. J. Chavez who was murdered near the Little Arkansaw: see note¹⁰, p. 424; M. Chavez was dead himself before 1847. The place where Pike so joyfully met the blooming Robinson is left open to question in the present text. If by the "next village" he means the next one he came to after leaving Albuquerque, this was certainly at or near the site of Atrisco. This is really the implication; otherwise we should have to go a good ways down the W. bank of the Rio Grande, to site of present Pajarito, or perhaps Isleta, at which latter place is now the junction of the Atl. and Pac. with the A., T., and S. F. R. R. The doubt is cleared away by the text of the 8th, where it appears that Pike visited Tousac (see next note) 3 m. from the village where Robinson was, and on the same (W.) side of the river, where the troops had been sent over night; and was then carted back over to the E. side of the river. He simply visited across the Rio Grande, as he had done at San Felipe, and then returned to continue his regular journey down the E. side. But neither of these two cases is put very clearly at first blush in the narrative.

[I'-18] "Tousac 500" is marked nearly opposite Albuquerque, at or near present site of Atrisco. What this can be, unless it is Atrisco itself, or some old place close by. I do not know. The name reminds us of Tesuque (see note⁷, p. 605), but the place here meant is obviously not that one. (See Tousac in Index.)

[I'-19] "S. Fernandez 500" is marked on the map as the first village below Albuquerque on the E. side. I do not recognize the name, nor can I find it on any one of several maps examined. No distance being given for the 8th, I am left entirely at a loss. But in no event can Pike have passed Peralta, a well-known place, and he is probably not far short of it. We may therefore note some places between Albuquerque and Peralta. Pajarito Arriba and Pajarito Bajo (Upper and Lower Pajarito) are two towns 3 m. apart, 3 and 6 m. below Atrisco, on the W. side of the river; and Tijeras or Tijera cr. or arroyo comes to the river from the E. about a mile below Pajarito Bajo. Three m. beyond this last town is Padillas, a Mexican town near the foot of the mesa, and three beyond this is Isleta—both on the W. side. None of these places was of importance; but Isleta is now a station on the A., T., and S. F. R. R., which makes a crossing of the Rio Grande to it from Isleta station on the E. side; and in the immediate vicinity of Isleta is the junction of the A. and P. R. R. Below Isleta station, on the E., are the Ranchitos d'Isleta; next is Los Pinos, already mentioned, then Chavez, and a mile from this stands Peralta. The latter was known at one time as Ontero's hacienda.

[I'-20] "S. Thomas 500" on Pike's map, a mile beyond which was camp of the 9th. As 12 m. advance was made to-day, St. Thomas and St. Fernandez were places 11 m. apart. Los Pinos, Peralta, and Valencia are all places within 3 m. of one another, and more or less nearly opposite Las Lunas, on the west, long a notable point of crossing of the Rio Grande, and present seat of Valencia Co. It is situated in the San Clemente tract, and near it are Las Lunas hills. Five miles below Valencia, on the E. side of the Rio Grande, is Tomé hill, a conspicuous butte on the edge of the mesa, in lat. 34° 45´. Tomé and the Tomé ranches are 2 or 3 m. further south. These stretched along the river for more than a mile, presenting at times well cultivated and well irrigated grainfields.

[I'-21] "Sibilleta 1000," which Pike marks on his trail on the E. bank of the Rio Grande, is otherwise Cibolleta, La Joya de Cibolleta, or old La Joya, within the area of the Cevilleta or Joya Grant, and in Socorro Co. (next county S. of Valencia). Present La Joya is across the river, on the W. side; the railroad goes through it. Beyond old La Joya is Joya cañon, on the E. All these places are a few miles S. of the confluence of the Rio Puerco with the Rio Grande, on the W. The Puerco is a sizable stream, or dry bed of one, on a general S. course, crossed at 23 m. distance in going W. from Las Lunas along the old road to Zuñi, Fort Wingate, etc. Where I crossed, it was a sluggish thread of dirty yellow water which one could bestride; but it is some 75 m. long, and important in furnishing bounds to several of the land grants in Valencia and Bernalillo cos. There is no trace of the Puerco on Pike's map, though he lays down both Rio Chama and Rio Jemez. Before coming to the confluence of the Puerco he passed a number of places now named, which may be taken up thus: On the E. side are Constancia, Casa Colorada, Vellita, and Las Nutrias, with several others of less note. Casa Colorada ("Red House") gives name to the grant next south of Tomé Grant; it is on the Rio Grande, 4 m. above the mouth of that considerable stream, high up on which are the ruins of Abo. On the W. side, where the railroad now runs, a principal place is Belen, in the vicinity of which were others which were called Ranchos de Belen, and Pueblitos de Belen; nearly opposite the last, but directly on the W. bank of the river, is Jarales. Next above the Belen pueblito, on the railroad, is Trejos, and next below it is San José. Below the last named is a point of woods, called in Spanish Punto del Bosque, and here is a place named Bosque. Rancho Sabinal, Sabinal station, and a certain Pueblito succeed one another, bringing us about opposite the above said Las Nutrias.

Along this whole stretch of the Rio Grande, from Peralta nearly to La Joya, a range of mountains extends in the E. offing, say 15-20 m. air-line to their summits. This is the Manzano range, running N. and S.; some of its peaks, up to 10,000 feet, are called Mosca, Capilla, Osha, and Manzano. The range continues S. under the name of Cerro Montoso. Roads start from many places on the Rio Grande to go through the cañons or passes in these mountains.

We have also to attend to Sabinez and Xaxales of the above text, and with these may note several other pueblos Pike charts in this region.

1. Sabinez, or Sabinal, or Savinal, was a place near the W. bank of the Rio Grande, in the vicinity of present Sabinal station on the railroad, about 10 m. above new La Joya, and somewhat less above the mouth of Rio Puerco.

2. "Xaxales 300" is marked a few miles S. of Sabinez, at or near the place on the railroad now called Pueblito, 6 or 8 m. above new La Joya. "Xaxales" is the same word as Jarales (otherwise Gerrales), but does not seem to have denoted the place now called by the latter name.

3. Next W. of Sabinez and Xaxales, but well off the Rio Grande, Pike marks "Seguna 250." This is the large, old, and still flourishing Keresan pueblo of Laguna, with a present pop. of over 1,100. It is so called from the little lake or laguna hard by, on a branch of the Rito San José (a branch of the Rio Puerco). This pueblo is on the main road from the Rio Grande to Zuñi and so on. An old Navajo trail takes or took off N. from Laguna, up another branch of the same rito, in the course of which latter is a cluster of small pueblos, as Povete, Pojuate, or Paguate; Moquino; Cebolleta; and Cebolletita; there were also various ruined pueblos here and there in the region watered by the Rito San José and its several trickling affluents. Covero is a pueblo not far W. N. W. of Laguna.

4. Pike marks "Cequimas 500" some distance S. W. of Laguna. This is the old and well-known Keresan pueblo of Acoma, on another affluent of the San José system, with a present pop. of about the same as it had in his time. Plates of Acoma and various other towns illustrate Lieut. J. W. Abert's report, Ex. Doc. 41, 30th Congr., 1st Sess., pub. 1848. (See Cequimas in Index.)

5. "Zumi 300" is charted near both of the foregoing, and E. of the continental divide. This is an error of location, for the pueblo meant is that of Zuñi or Suinyi, one of the largest and on the whole the best known of all the Indian towns in New Mexico. It is situated on the Rio Zuñi, tributary to the Colorado river system, and, therefore, on the Pacific slope. The place is famous as the very heart of the region where the "Seven Cities of Cibola" stood at the dawn of the historic period in Spanish invasion of this country; one of the seven having furnished at least a part of the present site of Zuñi. The Zuñian people, to the number of some 1,600, alone represent a distinct nation of pueblonians, called the Zuñian family: see a note beyond.

6. West of his line of continental-divide mountains Pike locates two pueblos, or rather Indian villages, by the names of "Cumpa" and "Chacat." These are not far apart, and both approximate to the four Moki villages he charts: see a note beyond for the Mokis. The identification of Cumpa may be in question; but Chacat evidently stands for what Pike learned of the old establishments in the Cañon de Chaco, or de Chasco. This is in N. W. New Mexico, and in such extent of the cañon as has running water is the Rio Chaco, tributary of Rio San Juan, a branch of the Colorado Grande which enters above the mouth of the Colorado Chiquito, in Utah. This cañon once harbored a large population in several different establishments, all long since gone to ruins; and the Chaco people have been the subjects of much disputed history. An excellent account of the ruins is contained in Simpson's Report, pp. 73-86; views of some of them are given on several plates. On his map the names of 10 of the 12 he locates stand as Pintado, Wejegi, Una Vida, Hungo Pavi, Chetho Kette, Bonito, Del Arroyo, Nos. 8 and 9 blank, Peñasca Blanca.

[I'-22] Past Joya cañon to the vicinity of La Joyita, near the S. border of the Joya Grant. This is a small town near which some black basaltic bluffs reach down close to the river. It is not to be confounded with the village of similar name, La Joya, a few miles further on.

[I'-23] The Black mts. of Pike's text, Sierra Obscura of his map, are in the series of ranges along the E. side of the Rio Grande, at varying but always considerable distances. These are in general but not exact continuation of the San Diaz or Sandia mts., and take, in different parts of their extent, other names, as Cerro Manzano, Cerro Montoso, etc.; the name Sierra Oscura or Black range being now restricted to a short chain between the Chupadera mesa on the N. and the San Andreas chain on the S. Though there is of course no such linear continuity of these ranges as Pike's Sierra Obscura seems to represent, yet I think Pike hit off the mountains wonderfully well, considering the stealthy circumstances under which he observed them. All through "the captivity" in New Spain he had to make his notes furtively, and then conceal them—in other words, he stole and hid away his information. His Sierra Obscura is all the better delineated by his marking certain southern portions of the chain with the names "Sierra de el Sacramento" and "Sierra de Guadelupe"—these being ranges which he was never near, if in fact he ever laid eyes on them. They are those called to-day the Sacramento and Guadalupe ranges, trending S. E. toward the Rio Pecos, down to lat. 32° or thereabouts; they are special southward extensions of the huge nest of mountains which bound for a great distance the water-shed of the Pecos, and are broken into many lesser ranges and peaks, as the White range (Sierra Blanca), the Nogal, Capitan, Carrizo, Jicarilla, etc. In perhaps no point is Pike's (qu: Humboldt's?) map clearer than where he runs his "Montagnes de Salines" N. between his Sierra Obscura on the E. and the Rio Grande on the W.; for this is the San Andreas range, which extends continuously southward from the Sierra Oscura of present geography, and whose southern portions now bear the names of the Organ and Franklin mts., ending only near El Paso. The Organ mts. were better and have been long known by the Spanish name of Sierra de los Organos, exactly as lettered by Pike. This curious name originated in the fancied resemblance of the columnar trap formations to the pipes of an organ. Wislizenus and Hughes both call them the "Organic" mts. Their fastnesses were favorite and habitual lurking-places of the Mescalero Apaches—those murderous freebooters and desperadoes who used to descend upon the peaceful pueblos and the Spanish settlements. "The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold," and so did the Apache, not only from the Organ mts. and other parts of the San Andreas or Salinas range, but also from all the mountains above mentioned as lying further east. Observe that Pike thrice locates Apaches among these mountains, lettering "Apaches Faraone," "Apaches Mescaleros," and "Apaches Mescalorez." He also locates what he calls "Indiens Ietans"; these are the Comanches, usually given in his text as "Tetaus," who played the part of Vandals to the Goths of the Apaches—twin scourges during the whole historic period and down to our own day, under the leadership of chiefs whose characters recall the popular impressions of Attila the Hun. The only serious criticism to be passed on this part of Pike's map is the way he runs a great river in the country of his Ietans and Mescaleros, between his Sierra Obscura and his Montagnes de Salines, i. e., in the deserts E. of his San Andreas range and W. of the other mountains. But this is simply his misapprehension of such information as he had of the course of the Pecos; for his "Rio Puerto" is a mistake for Rio Puerco, and this was a long current though mistaken name of the Pecos, to be found on various maps and in different itineraries of comparatively recent dates. It is hardly necessary to add that the Pecos lies eastward of all the mountains now under consideration; there is no such river where Pike lays down his "Rio Puerto." That region is a horrid desert, where such waters as may start from the mountains on either hand soon run out by evaporation and absorption, or lose themselves in those salty sinks and alkaline wastes whence originated, in fact, the former name of "Saline" or "Salinas" mts. for the San Andreas range.

As to the "Mountains of Magdalen" of Pike's text: We observe that he maps two isolated elevations on his right, W. of the Rio Grande, respectively lettered "Sierra Magillez" and "Sierra Christopher." These clearly correspond to two of the most conspicuous elevations, Mt. Magdalen and Old Baldy, of the range which continues to be known as that of the Magdalen mts. or Sierra Magdalena. These are a short but high range directly W. of the county town Socorro, whence a branch of the railroad now runs into them to the place called Magdalena. This range rises 20 m. and more from the river; in this interval a series of lesser elevations stretches northward, taking at successive points the names of Socorro, Limitar, Polvadero, and Ladron—the two last of these being separated by the arroyo of the Rio Salado, coming to the Rio Grande from the W. in the vicinity of the Joya cañon from the E.

The position of Pike's camp of the 12th is not easily determined, as he gives no mileage and names no place. But it was not far below Socorro, and perhaps in the close vicinity of Bosquecito. His Sierra Christopher (W. of the river) is to be carefully distinguished from what he further on calls the "mountain of the Friar Christopher," i. e., Fra Cristobal, on the E. of the river: see note²⁵, pp. 635, 636, and note³⁰, p. 639.

When Pike passed a couple of miles below Parida, on the E. side of the Rio Grande, he had to climb a steep hill close to the river. From the top of this there is a fine view to be had of various places. Nearly opposite is Socorro, on the W. bank; Limitar is visible, 6 or 8 m. higher up on that side; while about 4 m. below is the site of the ruins of Las Huertas (the Orchards). Socorro was long one of the largest and most important places on the Rio Grande. It had a population of 2,000 about the middle of this century.

[I'-24] No mileage for to-day, nor even number of hours on the march; no named point. In fact Pike's itinerary from Santa Fé thus far hardly gives a natural feature—not even the mouth of the Rio Puerco; we have to check it as best we can by a few names of towns now nearly a century old, and not always indicating a present location, together with what we may suppose to have been ordinary days' journeys. Camp of the 13th may be set somewhere within the limits of the present Bosque del Apache Grant, a good ways below Bosquecitos and San Pedro on the E., or San José and San Antonio on the W. A view of the Bosque faces p. 499 of Abert's report. The grant named is a small triangular area whose N. base is the S. border of the Socorro Grant, whose W. side adjoins the E. border of the Armendaris Grant, and whose apex is at or near Mt. Pascal (Cerro San Pascual). Old Fort Conrad was built on the W. side of the river, nearly opposite but a little above Valverde. Valverde was inhabited during the first quarter of this century, but the inhabitants were killed or driven off by the Apaches and Navajos, and it showed nothing but its ruins in 1846, as delineated on the plate of Abert's report, facing p. 506. Writing of 1839, Gregg says, Comm. Pra. II. 1844, p. 71: "We passed the southernmost settlements of New Mexico, and 20 or 30 miles further down the river we came to the ruins of Valverde. This village was founded about 20 years ago, in one of the most fertile valleys of the Rio del Norte. It increased rapidly in population, until it was invaded by the Navajoes, when the inhabitants were obliged to abandon the place after considerable loss, and it has never since been repeopled." This locality, in a narrow, sandy valley, some 15 m. by the road above Fra Cristobal mt., used to be a point of departure in various directions from the Rio Grande, and the name occurs continually in the history of scouts on reconnoissances in this region before our Civil War; it was the general rendezvous of Doniphan's forces, preparatory to his invasion of Mexico and capture of Chihuahua; and it was the scene of a battle, for gallant and meritorious services in which action a particular friend of mine, Allen Latham Anderson, was brevetted major, Feb. 21st, 1862.

[I'-25] To-day's itinerary brings up a number of interesting and important points, not evident at first sight. Below Valverde and San Pascual mt. Pike comes to a section of the river which has made much history. Along here, above and below Valverde, within a very few miles of one another, are the sites of Fort Conrad and old Fort Craig, both on the W. bank of the river; the position of the present places known as Arny, San Marcia, and Plaza Grande on the W., with La Mesa and Contadero on the E.; the present crossing of the railroad to the Mesa Prieta, from points higher up on the W.; and below this the Rio Grande crossing known as Paraje ferry, near the place of that name on the E. But we are mainly concerned to discover Pike's "point from which the road leaves the river"; and why at this point his escort should have abandoned the main road due S., two days' journey, to take him across the river and then S. W., by a rough and roundabout way for several days till, bearing S. E., the route should strike the S. end of the direct road which had been left at its N. end. If we should imagine some dark Spanish mystery here, we should be mistaken; for Malgares simply took Pike that way to avoid the terrible Jornada del Muerto—that Macabresque march which too often proved to be literally a "journey of the dead." It is now, as it was then, the great highway directly N. and S.; but what is now bowled over at ease in a few hours by rail, was then the toilsome, perilous, and sometimes fatal journey through an awful desert. When I was in New Mexico, 30 years ago, officers and others who had made this jornada were never weary of descanting upon the terrors of that "ninety miles without, a drop of water," as it was commonly said to be. The trip is not quite so far as this, between the points where the river is usually left and regained; but it is not much less, and lives often hung upon the uncertainty whether any water could be found at a midway point known as Laguna del Muerto, or Lake of the Dead. The route of the Jornada is like the string of a bow whose arc is the Rio Grande, stretched straight up and down the desert between the river on the W. and the San Andreas range on the E., or rather between this range and those mountains on the W. of itself which close in on the E. bank of the river, cause its deflection, and render travel along its left (E.) bank difficult or impossible. Hence the crossing of the river at a point above them, to go along the right or W. bank, as Malgares did, was the alternative to the Jornada del Muerto. The mountains in mention are a barren range which begins to hug the river in the vicinity of Paraje, below Contadero, and is known as the Fra Cristobal range; this, or rather the northern end of it, is the "mountain of the Friar Christopher," of which Pike speaks. The chain continues southward (with only partial interruption, in the vicinity of Fort McRae), as the Sierra de los Caballos, or Horse range. Pike lays down ranges at three separate points, lettered "Las Pennuclas" (for Los Penáculos, the Pinnacles), "Horse M^n." and "Death M^n."; the first of these being an elevation of the Cristobal range, probably that now called Cristobal Peak, and the second and third being parts of the Caballos range. Whatever the exact point at which the main road left the river when Pike passed, it was near if not at the same point whence the Jornada has begun for half a century at least, and which took the name Fra Cristobal from the mountain. Thus, we read in Gregg, Comm. Pra. II. 1844, pp. 71-72: "Our next camping place deserving of mention was Fray Cristóbal, which, like many others on the route, is neither town nor village, but a simple isolated point on the river-bank—a mere parage, or camping-ground ... thus being the threshold of the famous Jornada del Muerto." The words of Dr. Wislizenus on this subject are to precisely the same effect, Mem., 1848, p. 38: "This camping place is known as Fray Cristobal; but as there is neither house nor settlement here, and one may fix his camp close on or some distance from the river, the limits of Fray Cristobal are not so distinctly defined as those of a city, and generally the last camping place on or near the Rio del Norte before entering the Jornada del Muerto is understood by it." Doniphan's troops were more than three days in making the jornada: Hughes, Don. Exp., 1847, p. 95. Here the road left the river valley by a contadero, and passed on to the desert. The first lap of the jornada was 26 m. to the Laguna del Muerto, usually dry, sometimes holding water after a rain. (Pike lays this down rather too far N., as the "Lago del munto" by mistake of the engraver.) Thus when Gregg passed in 1839, "there was not even a vestige of water," l. c., p. 73. "The marshes," he continues, "said by some historians to be in the vicinity, are nowhere to be found; nothing but the firmest and dryest table land is to be seen in every direction. To procure water for our thirsty animals, it is often necessary to make a halt here, and drive them to the Ojo del Muerto (Dead Man's Spring), five or six miles to the westward, in the very heart of the mountain ridge that lay between us and the river. This region is one of the favorite resorts of the Apaches, where many a poor arriero has met with an untimely end. The route which leads to the spring winds for two or three miles down a narrow cañon or gorge, overhung on either side by abrupt precipices, while the various clefts and crags, which project their gloomy brows over the abyss below, seem to move the murderous savage to deeds of horror and blood." The second lap of the jornada was 28 m. to a place called Perillo (qu: same as Barilla?), to be found on present maps as Point of Rocks, where water may be found in holes. The third stage was 23 m., finishing the jornada in the vicinity of Fort Selden. This total of 77 m.—easily becoming the "90" of tradition—could be made in two days, as Pike says; the usual method being to cover the distance in three marches of a night, next day, and the following night. The road itself is not bad; only the possibility or probability of 77 m. without water made it a terror. As may be seen even from the map on the railroad folder, the jornada was nearly coincident with the present line from Contadero due S.; but the track leaves the river a little higher up, and strikes it again also higher up, at Rincon. The first portion of the track runs through mal pais, as they call ground strewn with rough and gritty fragments of lava, which makes traveling bad; there is a station called Lava from this circumstance, and also a certain Lava Butte, near the station Pope. The rails continue by Crocker and Round mt. to the station Eagle, whence a road goes off W. to the Fort McRae reservation; stations further along are Cutler, Upham, and Granada, the last being near the Point of Rocks, formerly called Perillo, near where the stage station used to be; whence the run is into Rincon, at a point on the river opposite Angostura, where Pike comes along on the 17th. A camping-ground on the river, at this end of the jornada, was known as Robledo (Oaks).

[I'-26] The whole of this way is bad, being cut across by a series of arroyos or gulches making down from the San Mateo and Mimbres ranges. These mountains are a part of the general chain which Pike maps in linear continuity as one which forms the "Dividing Ridge between the Waters of Rio del Norte and those of the Gulf of California"—that is, the Continental Divide. At one point in these ranges Pike legends very conspicuously "Grand Copper Mines, worked." It is also shown on the map of Lieut.-Col. Philip St. George Cooke, of his route from the Rio Grande to the Gila, etc., in 1846-47, Ex. Doc. No. 41, 30th Cong., 1st Sess., pub. 1848; and a "view of the copper mine" forms the subject of the plate opp. p. 59 of the same volume, in Lieut. W. H. Emory's report: see also ibid., A. R. Johnston's report, pp. 577, 578 fig. The headwaters of the Rio Gila are across the divide of the Mimbres range. As the party goes down the valley of the Rio Grande, say from the Nogal arroyo or the site of the village now called San José, opposite Fra Cristobal, 6,600 feet, they have the range of the latter name on the left, or E., immediately across the river, while the San Mateo peak, 10,200 feet, towers on the N. W.

[I'-27] Before coming to his Horse mt., Pike passed several points of note. He crossed Rio Alamoso or Cañada Alamosa near camp (unless he was already beyond it), and next Rio Cuchillo Negro. Between these two, but off on the E. side of the river, was built Fort McRae, in the southern foothills of the Fra Cristobal range (vicinity of Elephant Butte and Ojo del Muerto). There is or was a crossing of the Rio Grande from the fort, called Fest's ferry. Horse mt. of Pike is now called Caballo Cone; it rises at the N. extremity of the range of the Horse mts., usually known by the Spanish name of Sierra de los Caballos. The Mt. of the Dead is another elevation of this range, but which one is less easily determined. It was at or near the S. end of this range; see the positions of "Horse M^n." and "Dead M^n." on the map. Pike also marks a mountain close to his trail, on the W., by the name of "Rabledillo." This I take to be Cerro Cuchillo Negro, opposite Caballo Cone, between Rio Cuchillo Negro and Rio Palomo (Pigeon cr.). The latter is crossed at its mouth (Los Palomos); Rio Animas is crossed (Brent's); and several arroyos or dry washes are passed, till the party is well down on the W. side of the Horse range, within some 25 m. of where the Rio Grande will be crossed to-morrow. Camp is apparently between the mouths of Rio Perchas and Cienega Apache, which fall in near together on the W. Hillsborough, seat of Sierra Co. (which Pike entered when he left Socorro Co. on the 15th), is situated about 20 m. up Rio Perchas. Near this camp, and nearly opposite his Dead mt., Pike marks an elevation by the name of "La Ranchero," which appears to be that which approaches the Rio Grande most closely between Cienega Apache and White Water cr. In any event, this is one of the foothills of the Mimbres range, as are several others Pike maps in this vicinity. See next note.

[I'-28] Not 26 m. after crossing the river, but from last camp, from which it is about 26 m. to make the crossing. In this trip Pike turns the W. and S. flank of the Sierra de los Caballos or Horse mts., having these first E. and then N. of his route (on his left all the way). In so doing he passes from Sierra into Dona Ana Co., and goes by a number of notable points, some of which he maps. On the W. side of the river, in Dona Ana Co., at or near present Santa Barbara, was the site of old Fort Thorn and the old Indian Agency; Beck's ferry was also hereabouts. Pike sets four mountains on his right, at different distances to the W. and S. These are lettered (1) "Esterolargo," (2) "S. Jacomb," (3) "La Salmera," (4) "Piadro." These are some of the most elevated points in the rugged and irregularly broken country to the south of the Horse and Mimbres ranges; and their relative positions as mapped by Pike agree so well with those of certain well-known elevations that identifications may be attempted: (1) Esterolargo seems to correspond to the Cerro Magdalen, between Fort Selden on the E. and old Fort Cummings on the W. (2) is in the position of the Good Sight mts., about half-way between the Magdalens and Fort Cummings. A branch of the A., T., and S. F. R. R., from Rincon on the Rio Grande to Deming, runs past the Magdalens (station Sellers) and thence through the Good Sight mts. by Burr's Pass (station Nutt), between Good Sight Peak and Sunday Cone. Fort Cummings was built in that southern extension of the Mimbres range known as Cooke's range: leave railroad for the fort at Cummings station, or keep on past Coleman to Deming, etc. (3) is Cerro Robledo, on W. bank of the Rio Grande, immediately S. of Fort Selden. (4) may be intended for the Florida mts., on the boundary between Dona Ana and Grant cos., directly S. of Fort Cummings 20 and 30 m., not so far S. E. of Deming. Pike crosses the Rio Grande from W. to E., at or near where the railroad now crosses in passing between stations Hatch (Colorado) and Rincon; camp at this place or in its immediate vicinity, about opposite town of Angostura.

The practically identical language of Mar. 17th and 18th shows that Pike has duplicated an entry, and consequently that one day's march has been lost. This loss is irretrievable, so far as I can discover. Furthermore, we have no mileages for the 19th and 20th. Under these circumstances the best we can do is to march him into El Paso in three laps, set three camps ex hypothesi, and note in due order the places on the road over which we know he passed.

[I'-29] To camp at some point between Fort Selden and Dona Ana, probably not far beyond the site of the former post. The Military Reservation upon which this long noted fort was established includes a tract a few miles square on both sides of the river, between the Cerro Robledo on the S. and San Diego mt. on the N. and N. W.; eastward are some elevations known as the Dona Ana hills; the Cerro Magdalen is due W., but at a much greater distance. A few miles below Rincon and Angostura the river enters the Selden cañon, where it is straitened between Mt. San Diego on the E. and highlands on the W.; the railroad traverses this cañon, with the stations Tonuco near its head and Randall below; the position of the fort is between the latter and Leasburg, on the E. bank of the river. Pike's map shows a marked bend or loop of the dotted trail of the 18th, and I suppose this indicates where he went around Mt. San Diego. There used to be a place called San Diego here, about opposite the point where the old Cooke trail left the river. Dona Ana was founded on the E. bank of the river, say 60 m. by road from El Paso. This town was started in or about 1839, by settlers from El Paso, and 10 years later had a population of 300, mostly Mexicans, who required the protection of the military from the Apaches. The railroad passes by but not through the present town, which has given name to the county, though the county seat is at Las Cruces. Both of these places are included in the Dona Ana Bend Colony tract.

The Cooke trail above mentioned is that made by Lieut.-Col. Philip St. George Cooke, commanding the Mormon battalion of the Army of the West on the march from Santa Fé, N. M., to San Diego, Cal., under the guidance of Antoine Leroux, in the autumn of 1846. It will be found very clearly traced, from the point of departure from the Rio Grande to the Pima villages on the Gila, on the sketch-map accompanying that officer's report to General Kearny, Ex. Doc. No. 41, 30th Congr., 1st Sess., pub 1848, pp. 549-563. It is a roundabout way which loops far S. and strikes the San Pedro several days' march above the confluence of that stream with the Gila, follows the San Pedro down a piece northward, then strikes westward to Tucson, and so on N. W. to the Gila at the Pima villages. The distance is represented to have been 544 m.

[I'-30] Fra Cristobal, that is, but to be distinguished from Pike's Sierra Christopher: see note²³, p. 633, and note²⁵, p. 635. The road which Pike thus struck was in direct continuation of the Jornada del Muerto, on the way to El Paso, and led by Las Cruces, present seat of Dona Ana Co. This has been for many years one of the best-known places on the Rio Grande between Santa Fé and El Paso; it is located a little off the river, on the E. side. In the vicinity of Las Cruces, on the E. bank of the river, is Messilla, another well-known town. The party proceeded past Tortugas and Bosquecito, to a point somewhere beyond the site of old Fort Fillmore, and probably within the present limits of the Brazito tract. This camp might be fixed more exactly by one who could say how far short it was of a certain salt lake likely to be reached at 10 a. m. next day. The route along here, as indeed from Fort Selden, is practically coincident with that of the railroad. Brazito became the famous name of a battle-ground, after Christmas Day of 1846, when Colonel Doniphan's regiment defeated and routed a superior force of Mexicans who attacked him. A spirited account of this engagement is given by John T. Hughes, Don. Exp. 1847, pp. 96-99, including a plan of the battle-ground. The engagement lasted half an hour, about 3 p. m. The spot is given as "25 m." from El Paso, opposite a large island in the Rio Grande, and also opposite a pass between the lower end of the Organ mts. and others called the "White" mts. The Mexicans numbered about 1,300 men, of whom 71 were killed, 5 taken prisoners, and not less than 150 wounded, including their general, Ponce de Leon; the American casualty was 8 wounded—none killed.

On Pike's left as he passes stand the Organ or Organon mts., as now so called in strictness, being that southward continuation of the San Andreas range which is marked off by a gap from the rest of the chain. This gap is the San Augustin Pass; place there called Organ, 15 m. E. by N. from Dona Ana. Pike charts these mountains: see note²³, p. 631. They run about S., and as the river is here bearing S. S. E., the two approach within 10 to 5 m. in the vicinity of the place where Fort Fillmore stood. Pike's "Sierra de la Cola," as laid down close to the river, but due E. of El Paso, appears to correspond with what is now known as the Franklin range, around which the river finally turns E. to escape from all confinement. Along the Rio Grande itself his map marks nothing whatever from the vicinity of Fort Selden to El Paso. But we are now approaching some of the most important points of the whole route.

[I'-31] In the vicinity of Montoyo, Tex., in the extreme W. corner of the State. Passing successively Mesquite, Herron, and Lyndon, on the railroad, with San Miguel (Baca Grant), La Mesa, and Chamberino in succession on the other side of the river, Pike comes to the station Anthony and the parallel of 32° N.; on crossing which he goes from Dona Ana Co., N. M., into El Paso Co., Tex., as he proceeds down the left or E. bank of the river; had he been on the other side he would have remained in New Mexico until he entered present Chihuahua at lat. 31° 47´ N. For the course of the Rio Grande itself makes the irregular boundary of Texas for 15 or 20 m., from the point where the parallel of 32° N. strikes the river from the E., to that where the parallel of 31° 47´ N. leaves the river on the W. This break or fault (as a miner would say of a lead that acted so) of the straight border between Texas and New Mexico, where the boundary slips 13´ S. down the Rio Grande, is one of the politico-geographical curiosities of the situation, which would only be fully understood upon mastering the complicated history of the U. S. and Mexican Boundary Survey in all the bitterness of its personal episodes. Some of these points are considered in the following note. From lat. 31° 47´ N. on the Rio Grande, in the immediate vicinity of El Paso, Tex., and of El Paso del Norte (Ciudad Juarez), in Chihuahua, the river forms the boundary between the United States and the Republic of Mexico—that is, between Texas and the Mexican States of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas—on a circuitous but in general S. E. course to the Gulf of Mexico.

[I'-32] The celebrated place to which our friend has thus been conducted by his friends, the enemy, must not be confounded with our little town of El Paso, Tex. This grew up yesterday, so to speak; that dates from about 1680, as a Spanish settlement begun after the great Pueblo revolt, when Governor Otermin's people were driven out of Santa Fé. Before Pike was welcomed by the civil and ecclesiastical dignitaries of El Paso del Norte, he crossed the great river, and thus passed from the State of Texas into that of Chihuahua, as these are now bounded. He would have said that he simply went across the river which flows in the province of North or New Mexico of the kingdom of New Spain, and had not yet reached the province of New Biscay. But aside from any of the political affairs which spoil the complexion of the maps, El Paso is one of the most remarkable positions in North America, unique in some respects. With regard to the tide of emigration which set westward by southern lines of travel to the California of the forty-niners, it is comparable with that place by which, from time immemorial, the nations have passed from Asia into Europe, along what has been fitly styled the "highway of the world." But El Paso is not only a half-way house from the Gulf of Mexico to that of California; it is the continental cross-roads. For the ebb and flow of human tides set with conflicting currents, north and south, long before the first page of American history was traced, and will continue forever in motion by El Paso. There is the turning-point of that great river which was Rio del Norte above this pass, and Rio Grande or Rio Bravo below. "El Paso" is certainly, as it always has been, the place of fording or crossing the river—Gregg says it was called by Americans "The Pass," and speaks of "Pass wine" and "Pass whiskey," as they named the liquors made there—but that is not the implication of the name. "El Paso" is the mountain-pass—el paso del Rio del Norte—the place where the river passes from the mountains to the plains. We have traced it from Pike's stockade on the Conejos, in the San Luis valley, almost due S., in an immense trough of several hundred miles' length, during the whole of which distance it has been seen to be closely confined to its mountain bed, hemmed in on the W. by the continental divide or its several outliers, on the E. by successive ranges of not less dignity and importance. In all this course it receives no more than mere creeks from the eastern side; while from the W. its tributaries are comparatively few and small rivers. But at El Paso the river turns out of bed, so to say, with hardly a figure of speech, to go all abroad in the open country, drawing to itself large tributaries on its way to the sea. Yet it has another strait-jacketing to suffer in forcing its way through the last mountains that rise to obstruct its course. The struggle begins near the entrance of the Rio Conchas and in the vicinity of Presidio del Norte, one of the oldest establishments in northern Mexico; it continues for many miles through a series of cañons in the Bofecillos, San Carlos, and other mountains. During this passage the river makes a sharp elbow from S. E. northward, and then with a bold sweep recovers its former course; it receives its tribute from the Pecos, its largest branch; then, freed from its last fetters and augmented in force, the Rio Grande winds its way to the Gulf, having well won the title "Bravo." Such action is the more to be applauded if we remember that above the cañon-formations the river sometimes sinks exhausted into the ground, and its bed may become for many miles a wagon-road. The great flexures of the river lie within about a degree of latitude (29° to 30° N.), and the series of cañons is between the 102d and 105th meridians. Major Emory speaks of that great bend of the river as "one of the most remarkable features on the face of the globe—that of a river traversing at an oblique angle a chain of lofty mountains, and making through these, on a gigantic scale, what is called in Spanish America a cañon—that is, a river hemmed in by vertical walls," U. S. and Mex. B. Surv. I. 1857, p. 42. With due deference, and no desire to derogate from the dignity, either of the Rio Grande or of its cañonation, I do not see that we have not several parallel cases in this country, some of which are on a scale of not inferior magnitude. The essential features of the case are those of a great river which has once left its bed in mountains about its origin, traversed open country, and then forced its way through cañon-formation in another range or spur. The Arkansaw, heading in the continental divide, breaks out upon the plain at Cañon City, through a chasm in another range. The South Platte traverses South Park, and the North Platte, North Park, to seek the plains through other mountains than those in which they respectively head. The Yellowstone has its upper cañon and then comes out at Livingston through a lower one. The Missouri itself leaves its sources far remote from the range through which it finally makes its exit from Lewis and Clark's Gates of the Rocky Mountains. And just think of the Columbia!

Pike has nothing to say of any place on the Rio Grande opposite the Mexican town of El Paso, at or near where El Paso stands in Texas. But the valley has been settled and cultivated from remote antiquity, and the clustering of the population at various points gave rise to towns or pueblos, all of which, of course, had names, though several of these have lapsed forever. Maps now nearly half a century old mark on the Texan side several places by the names of Frontera, La Frontera, or Las Fronteras; Isleta, a Tañoan pueblo (in what is now Texas—distinguish from the other Tañoan pueblo, Isleta, in New Mexico); Socorro; San Elceario, or Elizario; also, Franklin and Fort Bliss—all these before there was any El Paso in Texas. Present maps show, below Montoyo, Santa Teresa, Frontera, El Paso, Isleta, San Elizario, and so on down the river along the railroad. As to the germ of the American town of El Paso, we find that Captain S. G. French, in 1849, came up the Rio Grande "to the intersection of the Santa Fé road at the rancho opposite El Paso"; and again: "El Paso is wholly situated in Mexico—there being, excepting the three villages on the island [San Elizario, Socorro, Isleta], but three houses on the American side." French's mileages by odometer in coming up the river on the Texan side, are: San Elizario to Socorro, 5.45 m.; Socorro to Isleta, 3.10; Isleta to Upper Ford, 7.05; Upper Ford to Coon's Hacienda, 7.09; total, 22.69, or 22⅔ m. from San Elizario to where the Santa Fé road came to the river to cross to El Paso, Mex. (Reports of Reconn., etc., 8vo, Washington, 1850, p. 53—not a book very easy to find.) A table of distances in the reverse direction and bringing in two more of the above names, is furnished by Major Emory, U. S. and M. B. S., I. 1857, p. 135: Franklin (opposite El Paso) to Fort Bliss, 2 m.; Fort Bliss to Isleta, 12.14; Isleta to Socorro, 3.10; Socorro to San Elceario, 5.45; total, 22.69, or 22⅔ m., as before. If these were independent measurements, the odometers must have been good, as well as the road; but I cite them both to show that Coon's Hacienda, Franklin, and El Paso, Tex., were the same place, opposite El Paso, Mex., and that Fort Bliss was built 2 m. lower down. Writing of the early fifties, Emory also states, op. cit., p. 91: "From San Elceario up to El Paso, a distance by the sinuosities of the river of 30 miles, but by air-line of only 20 miles, is almost one continuous settlement of Mexicans and Pueblo Indians, with here and there an American farmer and trader." His estimates of the population all along, from El Paso, Mex., to San Elceario, are: El Paso (including the very ancient Tañoan pueblo of Sinecu, supposed to have been built before the Spaniards came), 4,000; Franklin (present El Paso, Tex.), 200; Socorro, 300; San Elceario, 1,200; with 1,300 at places still further down, making a total of 7,000. Isleta does not figure in this census. This population was mostly mixed, with little pure Spanish, or Indian either. The commercial importance of El Paso as a port of entry may be inferred from Emory's statement that, before the ports on the lower Rio Bravo were opened, for some years as much as $2,000,000 worth of goods passed into Mexico this way; figures supposed to have been reduced more than one-half at the time of which he wrote. He describes the town of El Paso, Mex., as "one extended vineyard in the hands of many proprietors." The little town of Frontera, above mentioned, acquired some consequence in 1852 from the erection there in 1851 of one of the astronomical stations at which Major Emory, U. S. Commissioner, and Don José Salazar y Larregui, Comisionado Mexicano, determined the initial point of the boundary W. of the Rio Grande along the par. of 31° 47´ N. The position of Frontera, as decided and agreed upon by the Joint Commission, was lat. 31° 48´ 44.31´´ N., long. 106° 33´ 04.5´´ W. That of El Paso, Mex., or more exactly, of the cathedral in that place, was lat. 31° 44´ 15.7´´ N., long. 166° 29´ 05.4´´ W. Frontera was thus about 4 minutes N. and W. of El Paso, and the boundary started W. between these two places at a point 3.41 m. about N. W. of El Paso, and 2.70 m. about S. E. of Frontera; the total distance between these two places being 6.11 m. As the Rio Grande itself was the natural boundary agreed upon from the Gulf of Mexico to the point where the river should intersect the parallel of 31° 47´, the various questions that were to be determined concerned only the boundary thence W. across country to the Gulf of California and so on to the Pacific. Two different boundaries were in diplomatic agreement for some years before either of them was ascertained on the ground. These were those provided for by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2d, 1848, ratified Aug., 1848, and by the Gadsden treaty of Dec. 30th, 1853, ratified June 30th, 1854. Under the former of these, two abortive attempts were made to establish two different lines W. of the Rio Grande; and it was fortunate for us that neither of them succeeded. The old treaty was made in the dark, on our part at least, being based upon the ignorance of geography which Disturnell's map displayed in 1847. The old treaty line started on paper from the Rio Grande at a point some miles above Frontera, went W. on a certain parallel of latitude, hypothetical on the ground, for about 180 m., through the Chiricahua mts., and then turned due N. along a never-determined meridian till it struck Rio Gila, which was thence the boundary W. to the Rio Colorado. The line agreed upon by U. S. Commissioner John B. Weller and General Conde, the Comisionado Mexicano, started W. from the Rio Grande at a point in the vicinity of Dona Ana, ran along a parallel for the same distance as the other, and then turned N. on a meridian to the Gila, striking the latter at a point further down that river—further N. W., that is, owing to the difference of longitude of the initial point on the Rio Grande. Both of these were paper-lines, assumed when the two governments were feeling for S. and W. borders of New Mexico as laid down on Disturnell's map; for Article V. of the G. H. '48 treaty provided that from the intersection of the Rio Grande with the S. border of New Mexico (wherever that might be) the line should run W. along the whole S. border of New Mexico, and then turn N. along the W. border of the same to the Gila. This was decidedly a case of obscurum per obscurius, so far as laying down an actual line was concerned, for nobody knew where the S. and W. borders of New Mexico were, within several minutes of latitude and longitude. The Weller-Conde line above noted started from the Rio Grande at lat. 32° 22´, near Dona Ana, and went due W. upon an assumed S. boundary of N. M. In 1851 such an initial point had been agreed upon; a monument erected; and actual survey begun by Col. J. D. Graham. The other assumed S. boundary of N. M., along which a line was projected W. of the Rio Grande from an initial point in the vicinity of Frontera, was very near 31° 47´. Both luckily failed to go into effect. Such a comedy of errors, beginning on a false basis, was conducted through a tissue of blunders to an inevitable and fortunate fiasco. The work of the old boundary survey was prosecuted under a series of commissioners—John B. Weller; John C. Frémont, who accepted the appointment, but never got on the ground, and did nothing but resign; John R. Bartlett; and Robert B. Campbell. It wound up in 1853 as an ignominious and acrimonious failure, for which net result Congress had appropriated $787,112. This was expensive, but profitable in the end; for the event proved that a different boundary would come cheap at that or almost any other price. Almost down to 1848, the topography of the country between the Rio Grande and the Colorado of the West was practically unknown to Americans. But adventurers, traders, and emigrants had begun to set their faces toward the west along our borders; and the question of the most practicable southern route became one of great and growing importance. The War Department put exploring parties in the field; and through the labors of such officers as Emory, Abert, Parke, Marcy, Sitgreaves, Simpson, Whipple, Michler, J. E. Johnston, S. G. French, W. F. Smith, F. T. Bryan, and others, new light was thrown upon a vast region, to much of which El Paso was the key. Among other things, Emory developed the fact that there could be no thoroughfare through U. S. territory in the vicinity of 32° N., the country being practically impassable by any means of transportation then available along the parallel of 32°, N. of the projected boundary. The G. H. treaty '48, to use Emory's words, "fixed a line north of that parallel which cut off entirely the communication by wagons between the rivers [Rios Grande and Gila]; and leaving out of view the considerations involved in securing railway routes to the Pacific, it was a line which sooner or later must have been abandoned. No traveller could pass, nor could a dispatch be sent, from a military post on the Rio Bravo to one on the Gila, without passing through Mexican territory." Our Mexican neighbors evidently knew their country, as well as what they were about, much better than we did, until we learned to our cost what the matter was. The already notorious errors of the Disturnell map made any adjustment of the difficulty on that basis impossible, and some different understanding between the two countries became an obvious necessity. This was effected by the Gadsden treaty of 1853, which provided for the reconstruction of the international line on paper, and its determination on the ground. By the provisions of this agreement, the line was to run up the Rio Grande, as already defined by the G. H. treaty '48, to the point where the middle of the river should intersect the parallel of 31° 47´ N.; thence due W. 100 m.; thence due S. to the parallel of 31° 20´ N.; thence due W. to the meridian of 111° W.; thence in a straight line to a point on the Colorado r. 20 English miles below the confluence of the Gila; thence up the Colorado r. to the intersection of the already existing U. S. and Mexican line across California to the Pacific. The concessions represented by these terms were all-important to us; they not only secured the required practicable highway from the Rio Grande to the Gila, but added 26,185 sq. m. to U. S. territory, as was discovered when the line was run. This tract lies between the parallels of 31° 20´ and 33° 30´ N., and between the meridians of 106° 30´ and 114° W.; it may be called, in a phrase, so much of the U. S. as lies S. of the Gila, in New Mexico and mainly in Arizona. William Hensley Emory was commissioned by President Pierce, Aug. 4th, '54, to carry out the provisions of the treaty on the part of the U. S., and Don José Salazar y Larregui was appointed to the same official functions on the part of Mexico. Major Emory was required to meet the Mexican commissioner at El Paso by Oct. 1st, 1854, and the commission took the field without delay. Congress appropriated $168,130, Aug. 14th, '54, and $71,450, Mar. 3d, '55; total, $239,580, for running and marking the line. When the work had been done, Jan. 1st, 1856, Major Emory reported an unexpended balance of $98,454.59. He had also to turn in, as unexpended balance of certain appropriations for the old commission (altogether $58,100), the sum of $37,345.53; total to his credit, $135,800.12, remaining of the sum of $239,580 + $58,100 = $297,680, of which he had the disbursement and was responsible. It thus appears that his whole work cost the government only $161,879.87; it was finished within the time estimated by the government for its completion, and largely within the amounts appropriated for the purpose. The boundary run by Emory and Salazar, respectively, agreed upon by them jointly, and accepted by both governments, is at present in effect. It starts from the Rio Grande between El Paso and Frontera, at 31° 47´, and runs W. on that parallel 100 m., to a certain spot commonly referred to by the name of Carrizalillo, as that of the nearest named locality; thence it drops meridionally to the parallel of 31° 20´, at a nameless place in the mountains; thence it runs due W. to the intersection of the 111th meridian at a well-known place, Los Nogales; whence it runs obliquely to the Colorado r., at a point which is (roundly) 20 m. S. of Fort Yuma by the channel of the river—Yuma being on the W. bank, and practically opposite the mouth of the Gila. Aside from any question of the 25,185 sq. m. and the desirable right of way thus secured, under the provisions of the Gadsden treaty, the abrogation of the 11th article of the G. H. treaty was all-important to the U. S. "This article," to use Major Emory's words, "made it incumbent on the United States to keep the Indians living within our own territory from committing depredations on the Mexicans, and by implication imposed on the United States the obligation of indemnity for all losses resulting from failure to carry out the provisions of the treaty. No amount of force could have kept the Indians from crossing the line to commit depredations, and I think that one hundred millions would not pay the damages they have inflicted. Whole sections of country have been depopulated and the stock driven off and killed; and in entire States the ranches have been deserted and the people driven into the towns. It is true, all this has not been done since the war [with Mexico], and would form no just claim against the United States; but those conversant with the history of Mexican claims will at once admit that the United States would have been fortunate if she could have escaped with paying real claims for depredations, whether committed before or after the war. I should not be true to history if I did not state what is within my own personal knowledge—that companies were formed, and others forming, composed of persons of wealth, influence, and adroitness, who projected extensive schemes for the purchase of these claims, with the view of extorting them from the Congress of the United States." Not the least admirable feature of the present treaty, and one which was of equal moment to all respectable citizens of both countries, was the fullness of the powers it vested in the two commissioners. For Art. I. has: "That line shall be alone established upon which the commissioners may fix, their consent in this particular being considered decisive and an integral part of this treaty, without necessity of ulterior ratification or approval, and without room for interpretation of any kind by either of the parties contracting." This kept the dirty hands of professional politicians out of the affair, and left it to be settled by two honorable and able men, free to act at their best judgment and discretion, besides being competent to the requisite scientific work in astronomy and geodesy. The joint commission, in session on the spot, agreed upon the initial point of 31° 47´ N. on the W. bank of the Rio Grande, Jan. 10th, 1855; they marked it and agreed to erect the monument there. The corner-stone was laid Jan. 31st, in the presence of each other and of various civil and military dignitaries. The commissioners reconvened at Fort Bliss, Aug. 14th-16th, 1855, to consider the operations which had meanwhile been carried on by themselves and their respective assistants; whereupon they agreed to declare and did declare the line surveyed, marked, and established as far W. as the 111th meridian, and from the 111th meridian to the Colorado r.; they further agreed, etc., that the whole of the line should be declared fully established, etc., and the field-work concluded, whenever each should notify the other that certain topographical work then in progress had been completed by Lieutenant Michler and Señor Jimenez; whereupon, having no further business, the commission adjourned to meet in Washington, D. C., Apr. 1st, 1856. The required notifications were exchanged Oct. 15th and Dec. 18th, 1855. The work had been done, and subsequent proceedings were only in the nature of formalities between the two governments. My authority for the facts embodied in this note is of course the U. S. and M. B. S. Report unless otherwise stated. I have been led into this sketch of affairs of 40 years ago, partly by their intrinsic interest, but mainly because they show the state of things at a period of time equidistant between Pike's and the present day.