TAS̤WĪB (تثويب‎). Repeating the phrase, “Aṣ-ṣalātu k͟hairun mina ʾn-nāum” (i.e. “Prayer is better than sleep”), in the Aẕān for the early morning prayer. [AZAN, PRAYER.]

TAT̤AWWUʿ (تطوع‎). An act of supererogation. A term which includes both the sunnah and nafl actions of the Muslim (q.v.).

AT-TAT̤FĪF (التطفيف‎). “Giving Short Measure.” The title of the LXXXIIIrd Sūrah of the Qurʾān, beginning with the words:

We learn from the Itqān that some commentators see in this passage allusions to Madīnah circumstances, and consequently think that the Sūrah, or at least part of it, was revealed in that town. But in connection with such obviously Makkan verses, as 30 and following, where it is said:

it appears evident, that the pride and arrogance of the Makkans, founded on their ill-gotten wealth, is contrasted with the humble and precarious condition of the followers of Muḥammad, to convey at the same time a solemn warning, that the positions will be reversed on the Great Day of Reckoning.

TAT̤HĪR (تطهير‎). A purifying or cleansing of anything which is ceremonially unclean. For example, if a dog drinks from a vessel, it becomes najis, or “impure,” but it can be purified (tat̤hīr) by washing it seven times. A mosque which has been defiled can be cleansed with dry earth or water, and by recitals from the Qurʾān. If the boots on the feet have been defiled, they can be purified by rubbing them on dry earth.

Barāʾ ibn ʿĀzib says that Muḥammad taught that the micturation of an animal lawful for food does not render clothes ceremonially unclean. (Mishkāt, book iii. ch. ix.) [PURIFICATION.]

TATTOOING. Muḥammad forbade the custom of the idolaters of Arabia to prick the hands of their women and to rub the punctures over with wood, indigo, and other colours. (Mishkāt, book xii. ch. i. pt. 1.)

TAUBAH (توبة‎). (1) Repentance. (2) At-Taubah, a title of the IXth Sūrah of the Qurʾān. [PARDON, REPENTANCE.]

AT-TAUBATU ʾN-NAṢŪḤ (التوبة النصوح‎). Lit. “Sincere repentance.” A term used by divines for true repentance of the heart, as distinguished from that only of the lips.

TAUḤĪD (توحيد‎). A term used to express the unity of the Godhead, which is the great fundamental basis of the religion of Muḥammad. [GOD.]

TAUJĪH (توجيه‎). Any pious ejaculation recited by the pious before or after the Takbīr. (Mishkāt, book iv. ch. xii.) [PRAYER.]

TAURĀT (توراة‎). The title given in the Qurʾān (Sūrah iii. 2), and in all Muḥammadan works, for the Books of Moses. It is the Hebrew ‏תּוֹרָה‎ Tōrāh, “the Law.”

The author of the Kashfu ʾz̤-Z̤unūn (the bibliographical dictionary of Ḥājī K͟halīfah), says:—

“The Taurāt is the inspired book which God gave to Moses, and of which there are three well-known editions. (1) The Taurātu ʾs-Sabaʿīn, ‘the Torah of the Seventy,’ which was translated from the Hebrew into Greek by seventy-two learned Jews. (It is admitted by Christian writers that the Law, i.e. the Pentateuch, alone was translated first.) It has since been translated into Syriac and Arabic. (2) The Taurātu ʾl-Qarrāʾīn wa Rabbānīyīn, ‘the Taurāt of the learned doctors and rabbins.’ (3) The Taurātu ʾs-Sāmirah, ‘The Samaritan Pentateuch.’ ”

The same writer says the learned who have examined these editions of the Taurāt, found that although they agreed with each other and taught the unity of God, they do not contain an account of the stated prayers, the fast, the pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and almsgiving, nor anything regarding heaven or hell, which is, he adds, a proof of the Taurāt having been altered by the Jews. (Kashfu ʾz̤-Z̤unūn, Flügel’s edition, vol. ii. p. 459.)

Although Muḥammad professed to establish the Taurāt of Moses (see Qurʾān, Sūrahs ii. 130; iii. 78; iv. 135), it would appear from the Traditions that he did not view with favour the reading of it in his presence.

It is related that ʿUmar once brought a copy of the Taurāt to the Prophet, and said, “This is a copy of the Taurāt.” Muḥammad was silent, and ʿUmar was about to read some portions of it. Then Abū Bakr said, “Your mother weeps for you. Don’t you see the Prophet’s face looks angry.” Then ʿUmar looked, and he saw the Prophet was angry, and he said, “God protect me from the anger of God and of His Apostle. I am satisfied with God as my Lord, Islām as my creed, and Muḥammad as my Prophet.” Then Muḥammad said, “If Moses were alive and found my prophecy, he would follow me.” [OLD TESTAMENT.]

AT-TAUWĀB (التواب‎). Literally “One who turns frequently,” hence “the Relenting.” One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of God. Preceded by the article, as a name of God, it occurs four times in the Sūratu ʾl-Baqarah (ii. 35, 51, 122, 155), and twice in the Sūratu ʾt-Taubah (ix. 105, 119). In three of these passages, God’s relenting mercy is illustrated by striking instances taken from ancient and contemporaneous history, viz. in the case of Adam, of the Jews after their worshipping the golden calf, and of the three men who did not accompany Muḥammad in the expedition to Tabūk, and who, put under interdiction after his return, were not released from it till after fifty days of penance.

Sūrah ii. 35: “And words of prayer learned Adam from his Lord: and God relented towards him; verily, He is the Relenting, the Merciful.”

Sūrah ii. 51: “And remember when Moses said to his people: ‘O my people! verily ye have sinned to your own hurt, by your taking to yourself the calf to worship it: Be turned then to your Creator, and slay the guilty among you; this will be best for you with your Creator.’ So he relented towards you: verily He is the Relenting, the Merciful.”

Sūrah iv. 119: “He has also turned in Mercy unto the three who were left behind, so that the earth, spacious as it is, became too strait for them; and their souls became so straitened within them, that there was no refuge from God but unto Himself. Then was He turned to them that they might turn to Him. Verily, God is He that turneth, the Merciful.”

In the other places, mentioned above, and in two more (Sūrahs xxiv. 10, and xlix. 12), where the word is used as an adjective without the article, it describes God as ever ready to turn in forgiveness to man in general and to the Muslim in particular, if they turn in repentance unto him.

T̤AWĀF (طواف‎). The ceremony of circumambulating the Kaʿbah seven times, three times in a quick step and four at the ordinary pace. It is enjoined in the Qurʾān, Sūrah xxii. 27. Shaik͟h ʿAbdu ʾl-Ḥaqq says it was the custom of the Arabian idolaters to perform the t̤awāf naked. [HAJJ.]

TAʿWĪẔ (تعويذ‎). Lit. “To flee for refuge.” An amulet or charm. A gold or silver case, inclosing quotations from the Qurʾān or Ḥadīs̤, and worn upon the breast, arm, neck, or waist. [AMULET.]

TAXATION. There are three words used for taxation in Muslim books of law. (1) ʿUshr (عشر‎), “the tenth”; (2) K͟harāj (خراج‎), “land revenue”; (3) Jizyah (جزية‎), “capitation tax.”

(1) Lands, the proprietors of which become Muslims, or which the Imām divides among the troops, are ʿUshrī, or subject to tithe, because it is necessary that something should be imposed and deducted from the subsistence of Muslims, and a tenth is the proportion most suitable to them, as that admits the construction of an oblation or act of piety; and also, because this is the most equitable method, since in this way the amount of what is levied depends upon the actual product of the lands.

(2) Lands, on the other hand, which the Imām subdues by force of arms and then restores to the people of the conquered territory, are K͟harājī, or subject to tribute, because it is necessary that something be imposed and deducted from the subsistence of infidels, and tribute is the most suitable to their situation, as that bears the construction of a punishment, since it is a sort of hardship, the tax upon tribute land being due from the proprietor, although he should not have cultivated it. It is to be remarked, however, that Makkah is excepted from this rule, as Muḥammad conquered that territory by force of arms, and then restored it to the inhabitants without imposing tribute.

It is written in the Jāmiʿu ʾṣ-Ṣag͟hīr that all land subdued by force of arms, if watered by canals cut by the Gentiles, is subject to tribute, whether the Imām have divided it among the troops, or restored it to the original inhabitants; and if there be no canals, but the land be watered by springs, which rise within, it is subject to tithe, in either case, because tithe is peculiar to productive land, that is, land capable of cultivation, and which yields increase, and the increase produced from it is occasioned by water. The standard, therefore, by which tribute is due is the land being watered by tribute water, namely, rivers, and the standard by which tithe is due is the land being watered by tithe water, namely, springs.

If a person cultivate waste lands, the imposition of tithe or tribute upon it (according to Abū Yūsuf) is determined by the neighbouring soils; in other words, if the neighbouring lands be subject to tithe, a tithe is to be imposed upon it, or tribute if they be subject to tribute; because the rule respecting anything is determined by what is nearest to it; as in the case of a house, for instance, the rule with respect to it extends to its court-yard, although it be not the owner’s immediate property. The tribute established and imposed by ʿUmar upon the lands of al-ʿIrāq was adjusted as follows:—Upon every jarīb of land through which water runs (that is to say, which is capable of cultivation) one sāʿ and one dirham, and upon every jarīb of pasture-land five dirhams, and upon every jarīb of gardens and orchards ten dirhams, provided they contain vines and date-trees.

This rule for tribute upon arable and pasture lands, gardens, and orchards, is taken from ʿUmar, who fixed it at the rates above-mentioned, none contradicting him; wherefore it is considered as agreed to by all the Companions. Upon all land of any other description (such as pleasure-grounds, saffron-fields, and so forth) is imposed a tribute according to ability; since, although ʿUmar has not laid down any particular rule with respect to them, yet as he has made ability the standard of tribute upon arable land, so in the same manner, ability is to be regarded in lands of any other description. The learned in the law allege that the utmost extent of tribute is one half of the actual product, nor is it allowable to exact more; but the taking of a half is no more than strict justice, and is not tyrannical, because, as it is lawful to take the whole of the persons and property of infidels, and to distribute them among the Muslims, it follows that taking half their incomes is lawful a fortiori.

(3) Jizyah, or capitation-tax, is of two kinds. The first species is that which is established voluntarily, and by composition, the rate of which is such as may be agreed upon by both parties. The second is that which the Imām himself imposes, where he conquers infidels, and then confirms them in their possessions, the common rate of which is fixed by his imposing upon every avowedly rich person a tax of forty-eight dirhams per annum, or four dirhams per month; and upon every person in middling circumstances twenty-four dirhams per annum, or two dirhams per month; and upon the labouring poor twelve dirhams per annum, or one dirham per month.

(For further information see Raddu ʾl-Muḥtār, vol. ii. 7; Fatāwā-i-ʿĀlamgīrī, ii. 860; Hidāyah, vol. i. 102.)

TAYAMMUM (تيمم‎). Lit. “Intending or proposing to do a thing.” The ceremony of ablution performed with sand instead of water, as in the case of waẓūʾ. The permission to use sand for this purpose, when water cannot be obtained, is granted in the Qurʾān, Sūrah v. 9:—

“If ye cannot find water, then take fine surface sand and wipe your faces and your hands therewith. God does not wish to make any hindrance for you.”

It is related in the Traditions that Muḥammad said: “God has made me greater than all preceding prophets, inasmuch as my ranks in worship are like the ranks of angels; and the whole earth is fit for my people to worship on; and the very dust of the earth is fit for purification when water cannot be obtained.” (Mishkāt, book iii. ch. xi.)

Tayammum, or “purification by sand,” is allowable under the following circumstances: (1) When water cannot be procured except at a distance of about two miles; (2) in case of sickness when the use of water might be injurious; (3) when water cannot be obtained without incurring danger from an enemy, a beast, or a reptile; and (4) when on the occasion of the prayers of a Feast day or at a funeral, the worshipper is late and has no time to perform the waẓūʾ. On ordinary days this substitution of tayammum for waẓūʾ is not allowable. [WAZUʾ.]

TAʿZĪAH (تعزية‎). Lit. “A consolation.” A representation or model of the tomb of Ḥasan and Ḥusain at Karbalāʾ, carried in procession at the Muḥarram by the Shīʿahs. It is usually made of a light frame of wood-work, covered with paper, painted and ornamented, and illuminated within and without. It is sometimes of considerable size and of elaborate execution according to the wealth of the owner. [MUHARRAM.]

TAʿZĪR (تعزير‎). From ʿazr, “to censure or repel.” That discretionary correction which is administered for offences, for which Ḥadd, or “fixed punishment,” has not been appointed.

According to the Sunnī law the following are the leading principles of Taʿzīr:—

Taʿzīr, in its primitive sense, means “prohibition,” and also “instruction”; in Law it signifies an infliction undetermined in its degree by the law, on account of the right either of God, or of the individual; and the occasion of it is any offence for which ḥadd, or “stated punishment,” has not been appointed, whether that offence consist in word or deed.

(1) Chastisement is ordained by the law, the institution of it being established on the authority of the Qurʾān, which enjoins men to chastise their wives, for the purpose of correction and amendment; and the same also occurs in the Traditions. It is, moreover, recorded that the Prophet chastised a person who had called another perjured; and all the Companions agree concerning this. Reason and analogy, moreover, both evince that chastisement ought to be inflicted for acts of an offensive nature, in such a manner that men may not become habituated to the commission of such acts; for if they were, they might by degrees be led into the perpetration of others more atrocious. It is also written in the Fatāwā-i-Timūr Tashī of Imām Siruk͟hsh, that in taʿzīr, or “chastisement,” nothing is fixed or determined, but that the degree of it is left to the discretion of the Qāẓī, because the design of it is correction, and the dispositions of men with respect to it are different, some being sufficiently corrected by reprimands, whilst others, more obstinate, require confinement, and even blows.

(2) In the Fatāwā-i-Shāfiʿī it is said that there are four orders or degrees of chastisement:—First, the chastisement proper to the most noble of the noble (or, in other words, princes and men of learning), which consists merely in admonition, as if the Qāẓī were to say to one of them, “I understand that you have done thus, or thus,” so as to make him ashamed. Secondly, the chastisement proper to the noble (namely, commanders of armies, and chiefs of districts), which may be performed in two ways, either by admonition (as above), or by jarr, that is, by dragging the offender to the door and exposing him to scorn. Thirdly, the chastisement proper to the middle order (consisting of merchants and shopkeepers), which may be performed by jarr (as above), and also by imprisonment; and Fourthly, the chastisement proper to the lowest order in the community, which may be performed by jarr, or by imprisonment, and also by blows.

(3) It is recorded from Abū Yūsuf that the ruler of a country may inflict chastisement by means of property, that is, by the exaction of a small sum in the manner of a fine, proportioned to the offence; but this doctrine is rejected by many of the learned.

(4) Imām Timūr Tashī says that chastisement, where it is incurred purely as the right of God, may be inflicted by any person whatever; for Abū Jaʿfar Hindūānī, being asked whether a man, finding another in the act of adultery with his wife, might slay him, replied, “If the husband know that expostulation and beating will be sufficient to deter the adulterer from a future repetition of his offence, he must not slay him; but if he sees reason to suppose that nothing but death will prevent a repetition of the offence, in such case it is allowed to the husband to slay that man: and if the woman were consenting to his act, it is allowed to her husband to slay her also;” from which it appears that any man is empowered to chastise another by blows, even though there be no magistrate present. He has demonstrated this fully in the Muntafiʿ: and the reason of it is that the chastisement in question is of the class of the removal of evil with the hand, and the Prophet has authorized every person to remove evil with the hand, as he has said: “Whosoever among ye see the evil, let him remedy it with his own hands; but if he be unable so to do, let him forbid it with his tongue.” Chastisement, therefore, is evidently contrary to punishment, since authority to inflict the latter does not appertain to any but a magistrate or a judge. This species of chastisement is also contrary to the chastisement which is incurred on account of the right of the individual (such as in cases of slander, and so forth), since that depends upon the complaint of the injured party, whence no person can inflict it but the magistrate, even under a private arbitration, where the plaintiff and defendant may have referred the decision of the matter to any third person.

(5) Chastisement, in any instance in which it is authorized by the law, is to be inflicted where the Imām sees it advisable.

(6) If a person accuse of whoredom a male or female slave, an ummu ʾl-walad, or an infidel, he is to be chastised, because this accusation is an offensive accusation, and punishment for slander is not incurred by it, as the condition, namely, Iḥsān (or marriage in the sense which induces punishment for slander), is not attached to the accused: chastisement, therefore, is to be inflicted. And in the same manner, if any person accuse a Muslim of any other thing than whoredom (that is, abuse him, by calling him a reprobate, or a villain, or an infidel, or a thief), chastisement is incurred, because he injures a Muslim and defames him; and punishment (ḥadd) cannot be considered as due from analogy, since analogy has no concern with the necessity of punishment: chastisement, therefore, is to be inflicted. Where the aggrieved party is a slave, or so forth, the chastisement must be inflicted to the extremity of it: but in the case of abuse of a Muslim, the measure of the chastisement is left to the discretion of the magistrate, be it more or less; and whatever he sees proper let him inflict.

(7) If a person abuse a Muslim, by calling him an ass, or a hog, in this case chastisement is not incurred, because these expressions are in no respect defamatory of the person towards whom they are used, it being evident that he is neither an ass nor a hog. Some allege that, in our time, chastisement is inflicted, since, in the modern acceptation, calling a man an ass or a hog is held to be abuse. Others, again, allege that it is esteemed such only where the person towards whom such expressions are used happens to be of dignified rank (such as a prince, or a man of letters), in which case chastisement must be inflicted upon the abuser, as by so speaking he exposes that person of rank to contempt; but if he be only a common person, chastisement is not incurred: and this is the most approved doctrine.

(8) The greatest number of stripes in chastisement is thirty-nine (see 2 Cor. xi. 24), and the smallest number is three. This is according to Abū Ḥanīfah and Imām Muḥammad. Abū Yūsuf says that the greatest number of stripes in chastisement is seventy-five. The restriction to thirty-nine stripes is founded on a saying of the Prophet: “The man who shall inflict scourging to the amount of punishment, in a case where punishment is not established, shall be accounted an aggravator” (meaning a wanton aggravator of punishment), from which saying it is to be inferred that the infliction of a number of stripes in chastisement, to the same amount as in punishment, is unlawful; and this being admitted, Abū Ḥanīfah and Imām Muḥammad, in order to determine the utmost extent of chastisement, consider what is the smallest punishment: and this is punishment for slander with respect to a slave, which is forty stripes; they therefore deduct therefrom one stripe, and establish thirty-nine as the greatest number to be inflicted in chastisement. Abū Yūsuf, on the other hand, has regard to the smallest punishment with respect to freemen (as freedom is the original state of man), which is eighty stripes; he therefore deducts five, and establishes seventy-five as the greatest number to be inflicted in chastisement as aforesaid, because the same is recorded of ʿAlī, whose example Abū Yūsuf follows in this instance. It is in one place recorded of Abū Yūsuf that he deducted only one stripe, and declared the utmost number of stripes in chastisement to be seventy-nine. Such, also, is the opinion of Zafr; and this is agreeable to analogy. Imām Muḥammad, in his book, has determined the smallest number of stripes in chastisement to be three, because in fewer there is no chastisement. The more modern doctors assert that the smallest degree of chastisement must be left to the judgment of the Imām or Qāẓī, who is to inflict whatever he may deem sufficient for chastisement, which is different with respect to different men. It is recorded of Abū Yūsuf that he has alleged that the degree thereof is in proportion to the degree of the offence; and it is also recorded from him that the chastisement for petty offences should be inflicted to a degree approaching to the punishment allotted for offences of a similar nature; thus the chastisement for libidinous acts (such as kissing and touching), is to be inflicted to a degree approaching to punishment for whoredom; and the chastisement for abusive language to a degree approaching to punishment for slander.

(9) If the Qāẓī deem it fit in chastisement to unite imprisonment with scourging, it is lawful for him to do both, since imprisonment is of itself capable of constituting chastisement, and has been so employed, for the Prophet once imprisoned a person by way of chastising him. But as imprisonment is thus capable of constituting chastisement, in offences where chastisement is incurred by their being established, imprisonment is not lawful before the offence be proved, merely upon suspicion, since imprisonment is in itself a chastisement: contrary to offences which induce punishment, for there the accused may be lawfully imprisoned upon suspicion, as chastisement is short of punishment (whence the sufficiency of imprisonment alone in chastisement); and such being the case, it is lawful to unite imprisonment with blows.

(10) The severest blows or stripes may be used in chastisement, because, as regard is had to lenity with respect to the number of the stripes, lenity is not to be regarded with respect to the nature of them, for otherwise the design would be defeated; and hence, lenity is not shown in chastisement by inflicting the blows or stripes upon different parts or members of the body. And next to chastisement, the severest blows or stripes are to be inflicted in punishment for whoredom, as that is instituted in the Qurʾān. Whoredom, moreover, is a deadly sin, insomuch that lapidation for it has been ordained by the law. And next to punishment for whoredom, the severest blows or stripes are to be inflicted in punishment for wine-drinking, as the occasion of punishment is there fully certified. And next to punishment for wine-drinking, the severity of the blows or stripes is to be attended to in punishment for slander, because there is a doubt in respect to the occasion of the punishment (namely, the accusation), as an accusation may be either false or true; and also, because severity is here observed, in disqualifying the slanderer from appearing as an evidence: wherefore severity is not also to be observed in the nature of the blows or stripes.

(11) If the magistrate inflict either punishment or chastisement upon a person, and the sufferer should die in consequence of such punishment or chastisement, his blood is Nadar, that is to say, nothing whatever is due upon it, because the magistrate is authorized therein, and what he does is done by decree of the law; and an act which is decreed is not restricted to the condition of safety. This is analogous to a case of phlebotomy; that is to say, if any person desire to be let blood, and should die, the operator is in no respect responsible for his death; and so here also. It is contrary, however, to the case of a husband inflicting chastisement upon his wife, for his act is restricted to safety, as it is only allowed to a husband to chastise his wife; and an act which is only allowed is restricted to the condition of safety, like walking upon the highway. Ash-Shāfiʿī maintains that, in this case, the fine of blood is due from the public treasury; because, although where chastisement or punishment prove destructive, it is homicide by misadventure (as the intention is not the destruction, but the amendment of the sufferer), yet a fine is due from the public treasury, since the advantage of the act of the magistrate extends to the public at large, wherefore the atonement is due from their property, namely, from the public treasury. The Ḥanafī doctors, on the other hand, say that whenever the magistrate inflicts a punishment ordained of God upon any person, and that person dies, it is the same as if he had died by the visitation of God, without any visible cause; wherefore there is no responsibility for it. (See the Hidāyah; the Durru ʾl-Muk͟htār; the Fatāwā-i-ʿĀlamgīrī, in loco.) [PUNISHMENT.]

TAZKIYAH (تزكية‎). Lit. “Purifying.” (1) Giving the legal alms, or zakāt.

(2) The purgation of witnesses. (See Hamilton’s Hidāyah, vol. ii. p. 674.) An institution of inquiry into the character of witnesses.

TAZWĪJ (تزويج‎). Lit. “Joining.” A term used for a marriage contract. [MARRIAGE.]

TEMPLE AT MAKKAH, The. [MASJIDU ʾL-HARAM.]

TERAH. [AZAR.]

THEFT. [LARCENY.]

THEOLOGY. Arabic al-ʿIlmu ʾl-Ilāhī (العلم الالهى‎), “The Science of God.” In the Traditions, the term ʿIlm, “knowledge,” is specially applied to the knowledge of the Qurʾān.

Shaik͟h ʿAbdu ʾl-Ḥaqq, in his remarks on the term ʿIlm, says religious knowledge consists in an acquaintance with the Qurʾān and the Traditions of Muḥammad.

Muḥammadan theology may be divided into:—

(1) ʿIlmu ʾt-Tafsīr, a knowledge of the Qurʾān and the commentaries thereon.

(2) ʿIlmu ʾl-Hadīs̤, a knowledge of the Traditions.

(3) ʿIlmu ʾl-Uṣūl, a knowledge of the roots, or of the four principles of the foundations of Muslim law, being expositions of the exegesis of the Qurʾān and the Ḥadīs̤, and the principles of Ijmāʿ and Qiyās.

(4) ʿIlmu ʾl-Fiqh, Muslim law, whether moral, civil, or ceremonial.

(5) ʿIlmu ʾl-ʿAqāʾid, scholastic theology, founded on the six articles of the Muslim creed, the Unity of God, the Angels, the Books, the Prophets, the Resurrection, and Predestination. [ʿILM.]

THUNDER. Arabic Raʿd (رعد‎). In the Qurʾān, Sūrah xiii. 13, 14, it is said: “He (God) it is who shows you the lightning for fear and hope (of rain); and He brings up heavy clouds, and the thunder celebrates His praise; and the angels, too, fear him, and He sends the thunder-clap and overtakes therewith whom He will; yet they wrangle about God! But He is strong in might.”

AT̤-T̤IBBU ʾR-RŪḤĀNI (الطب الروحانى‎). Lit. “The science (medical) of the heart.” A term used by the Ṣūfīs for a knowledge of the heart and of remedies for its health. (See Kitābu ʾt-Taʿrīfāt.)

TILĀWAH (تلاوة‎). Lit. “Reading.” The reading of the Qurʾān. [QURʾAN.]

AT-TĪN (التين‎). “The Fig.” The title of the XCVth Sūrah of the Qurʾān, the opening words of which are: “I swear by the fig and by the olive.”

T̤ĪNATU ʾL-K͟HABĀL (طــيــنــة الخبال‎). Lit. “The clay of putrid matter.” The sweat of the people of hell. An expression used in the Traditions. (Mishkāt, book xv. ch. vii. pt. 1.)

AT-TIRMIẔĪ (الترمذى‎). The Jāmiʿu ʾt-Tirmiẕī, or the “Collection of Tirmiẕī.” One of the six correct books of Sunnī traditions collected by Abū ʿĪsā Muḥammad ibn ʿĪsā ibn Saurah at-Tirmiẕī, who was born at Tirmiẕ on the banks of the Jaihun, A.H. 209. Died A.H. 279. [TRADITIONS.]

TITHE. [TAXATION.]

TOBACCO. Arabic duk͟hān (دخان‎) (smoke). In some parts of Syria tabag͟h (تبغ‎) and tutun (تتن‎); in India and Central Asia, tamāku, corruption of the Persian tambākū (تنباكو‎). Tobacco was introduced into Turkey, Arabia, and other parts of Asia soon after the beginning of the seventeenth century of the Christian era, and very soon after it had begun to be regularly imported from America into western Europe. Its lawfulness to the Muslim is warmly disputed. The Wahhābīs have always maintained its unlawfulness, and even other Muslims hardly contend for its lawfulness, but it has become generally used in Muslim countries. In India, smoking is allowed in mosques; but in Afg͟hānistān and Central Asia, it is generally forbidden. The celebrated Muslim leader, the Ak͟hūnd of Swat, although an opponent of the Wahhābīs, condemned the use of tobacco on account of its exhilarating effects.

TOLERATION, RELIGIOUS. Muḥammadan writers are unanimous in asserting that no religious toleration was extended to the idolaters of Arabia in the time of the Prophet. The only choice given them was death or the reception of Islām. But they are not agreed as to how far idolatry should be tolerated amongst peoples not of Arabia. Still, as a matter of fact, Hindūs professing idolatry are tolerated in all Muslim countries. Jews, Christians, and Majūsīs are tolerated upon the payment of a capitation tax [JIZYAH, TREATY]. Persons paying this tax are called Ẕimmīs, and enjoy a certain toleration. (Fatāwā-i-ʿAlamgīrī, vol. i. p. 807.) [ZIMMI.]

According to the Ḥanafīs, the following restrictions are ordained regarding those who do not profess Islām, but enjoy protection on payment of the tax:—

It behoves the Imām to make a distinction between Muslims and Ẕimmīs, in point both of dress and of equipage. It is, therefore, not allowable for Ẕimmīs to ride upon horses, or to use armour, or to use the same saddles and wear the same garments or head-dresses as Muslims, and it is written in the Jāmiʿu ʾṣ-Ṣag͟hīr, that Ẕimmīs must be directed to wear the kistīj openly on the outside of their clothes (the kistīj is a woollen cord or belt which Ẕimmīs wear round their waists on the outside of their garments); and also that they must be directed, if they ride upon any animal, to provide themselves a saddle like the panniers of an ass.

The reason for this distinction in point of clothing and so forth, and the direction to wear the kistīj openly, is that Muslims are to be held in honour (whence it is they are not saluted first, it being the duty of the highest in rank to salute first [SALUTATION]), and if there were no outward signs to distinguish Muslims from Ẕimmīs, these might be treated with the same respect, which is not allowed. It is to be observed that the insignia incumbent upon them to wear is a woollen rope or cord tied round the waist, and not a silken belt.

It is requisite that the wives of Ẕimmīs be kept separate from the wives of Muslims, both in the public roads, and also in the baths; and it is also requisite that a mark be set upon their dwellings, in order that beggars who come to their doors may not pray for them. The learned have also remarked that it is fit that Ẕimmīs be not permitted to ride at all, except in cases of absolute necessity, and if a Ẕimmī be thus, of necessity, allowed to ride, he must alight wherever he sees any Muslims assembled; and, as mentioned before, if there be a necessity for him to use a saddle, it must be made in the manner of the panniers of an ass. Ẕimmīs of the higher orders must also be prohibited from wearing rich garments.

The construction of churches or synagogues in the Muslim territory is unlawful, this being forbidden in the Traditions; but if places of worship originally belonging to Jews or Christians be destroyed, or fall to decay, they are at liberty to repair them, because buildings cannot endure for ever, and as the Imām has left these people to the exercise of their own religion, it is a necessary inference that he has engaged not to prevent them from rebuilding or repairing their churches and synagogues. If, however, they attempt to remove these, and to build them in a place different from their former situation, the Imām must prevent them, since this is an actual construction; and the places which they use as hermitages are held in the same light as their churches, wherefore the construction of those also is unlawful.

It is otherwise with respect to such places of prayer as are within their dwellings, which they are not prohibited from constructing, because these are an appurtenance to the habitation. What is here said is the rule with respect to cities, but not with respect to villages or hamlets, because, as the tokens of Islām (such as public prayer, festivals, and so forth) appear in cities, Ẕimmīs should not be permitted to celebrate the tokens of infidelity there in the face of them; but as the tokens of Islām do not appear in villages or hamlets, there is no occasion to prevent the construction of synagogues or churches there.

Some allege that Ẕimmīs are to be prohibited from constructing churches or synagogues, not only in cities but also in villages and hamlets, because in the villages various tokens of Islām appear, and what is recorded from Abū Ḥanīfah (that the prohibition against building churches and synagogues is confined to cities, and does not extend to villages and hamlets) relates solely to the villages of al-Kūfah, because the greater part of the inhabitants of villages are Ẕimmīs, there being few Muslims among them, wherefore the tokens of Islām did not there appear; moreover, in the territory of Arabia Ẕimmīs are prohibited from constructing churches or synagogues, either in cities or villages, because the Prophet has said: “Two religions cannot be possessed together in the peninsula of Arabia.” (See Fatāwā-i-ʿAlamgīrī, Durru ʾl-Muk͟htār, Hidāyah, in loco.) [ZIMMI.]