5341. The uses of root-words cover a wide range of meanings, the diversity of which is due to the various material meanings of the roots. The rough grouping here made is a matter of convenience; the speech-feeling seems not to distinguish classes of roots or diverse employments of root-words.

10While a complete list of the examples occurring in the Texts and illustrative sentences will be given for nearly all other formations, the root-words are so numerous that it will be expedient merely to refer to the Index.

(a) In the former case, it is generally a single occurrence of 20the quality that is expressed, not the quality in general, which is expressed rather by a collective with ka- and -an (§ 421 ff.), but this distinction is not fully carried out. The root-word generally stands in object construction. Examples: Aŋ búte ni Hwàn ay walá sa kanya ŋ úlo, dátapuwat násàsa kanya ŋ púsoʾ. Juan’s 25good quality lies not in his head, but in his heart. Si Pédro ay táo ŋ wala ŋ daŋàl. Pedro is a person without honor. aŋ ínit naŋ tagáraw the heat of summer. Aŋ lálim naŋ balòn ay isà ŋ pantay-kawáyan. The depth of the well is the length of a bamboo-tree. Aŋ lamìg sa Amérika ay masyádo. The cold in America is 30excessive. Aŋ ligsè naŋ usà ay hindí gáya naŋ sa áso. The speed of the deer is not equal to that of the dog. Aŋ samá naŋ ságiŋ na itò ay nása ugàt. The trouble with this banana-tree is at the root. aŋ taàs naŋ káhoy the height of the tree.

(b) When expressing an object endowed with a quality, the 35root-word is in competition with words formed with the prefix ma- (§ 454). It usually stands as a predicate or as conjunctive attribute of another word. aŋ túbig na álat salt-water, aŋ dágat na álat the salt-sea, the ocean. Aŋ pákoʾ ay baluktòt. The nail is crooked. Aŋ patalìm ay báwal sa maŋa bátaʾ. Children are not 40allowed to have sharp tools. Aŋ itlùg na yitò y bugòk (or: bulòk). This egg is rotten. Sya y bugòk. He is crazy. aŋ buwísit na alílaʾ a repulsive servant. Ikàw ay bwísit. You are a bore. Maŋa gíliw ko ŋ ginoò! Honored sirs! isa ŋ táu ŋ hámak a no-account person. aŋ táu ŋ lasìŋ the drunken man. Sya y lasìŋ. 5He is drunk. aŋ pulúbe ŋ lumpò the lame beggar. Sya y lumpò. He is lame. Si Hwàn ay isa ŋ mahàl na bátaʾ sa kanya ŋ maŋa magúlaŋ. Juan is a child dear to his parents. Múra aŋ maŋa síle sa panahò ŋ itò. Peppers are cheap at this time. Hindí pansìn aŋ piklàt sa mukhà naŋ dalága ŋ si Maryà. The scar on young 10Maria’s face is not noticeable. aŋ táo ŋ panòt a bald-headed man. isa ŋ báya ŋ payápaʾ a tranquil town. Sya y pípe. He is dumb. Aŋ pintà naŋ bintánaʾ ay putèʾ. The window is painted white. Sagàd aŋ kanya ŋ gupìt. His hair-cut is close. Sina Hwàn ay salàt sa pananamìt. Juan and his family are short of clothing. 15Akò y sawí sa pagsusúboʾ sa bátaʾ. I am in an awkward position for feeding the child. Sáyaŋ aŋ báta ŋ si Hwàn. Little Juan is to be regretted. Isa ŋ táo ŋ sinuŋáliŋ si Pédro. Pedro is a liar. Si Hwàn ay isa ŋ táo ŋ tanyàg. Juan is a renowned man. Tanyàg sya sa kanya ŋ kláse. He is at the head of his class. aŋ 20tigàs naŋ káhoy the hard part of the log. aŋ daà ŋ tumpàk the right road. si Untèʾ Shorty (as nickname).

(a) The root-word may refer to the action itself; it is used 25of a single instance rather than of the action in general, which is expressed rather by abstracts of action, though the distinction is not always clear. The root-word so used is mostly in object construction. Examples: Aŋ anyáya sa ákin ni Hwána ay áki ŋ tinaŋgàp. I accepted Juana’s invitation. May bálìʾ aŋ kawáyan. 30The bamboo has a break in it. May búhay pa aŋ púsa ŋ itò. This cat is still alive. Aŋ dalamhátì naŋ kanya ŋ inà ay malakì. His mother’s grief is great. Sa damdam kò y nagumpisa nà aŋ malalamìg na áraw. I think (literally: In my feeling) the cold days have begun. Si Hwàn ay sya ŋ pumáyag sa hilìŋ nilà sa kanya 35ŋ sasakyàn. Juan was the one who acceded to their request for his vehicle. Aŋ húgas naŋ piŋgàn ay marumè. The washing of the dishes is dirty, i. e. The dishes have been poorly washed. Aŋ kantà naŋ íbon ay maínam. The bird’s song is pleasant. Aŋ kasàl ni Pédro at ni Maryà ay sa liŋgò. The wedding of Pedro and 40Maria will be on Sunday. aŋ áki ŋ lúlan sa trén my embarking (with all my goods) on the train. Aŋ pagakpàk naŋ maŋa táo ay nakabíbiŋi. The applause of the people was deafening. Aŋ pásoʾ sa paà ni Pédro ay malakì. The burn on Pedro’s foot is large. Aŋ pútol naŋ buhòk ni Hwàn ay bakìl-bakìl. Juan’s hair-cut is uneven. Sa lúnes aŋ tagpú nila sa daà-ŋ-Balíwag. They are to meet on the Baliwag road next Monday. aŋ tahòl ni Batò 5ŋ Bákal the barking of Iron Stone (name of a dog). Aŋ támà naŋ bátaʾ ay sa úlo. The child was struck on the head. Binigyàn ni Hwàn naŋ isà ŋ tapìk aŋ kaybígan nya ŋ si Pédro. Juan gave his friend Pedro a nudge. Aŋ kanya ŋ túlog ay mabábaw. His sleep is light. Aŋ upú naŋ Intsìk ay pataluŋkòʾ. The Chinese sit 10squatting. Butíhan mo aŋ yárì naŋ sambalílo. Put a good finish on (the making of) the hat.

(b) The root-word may express an object by virtue of which the action becomes possible or has concrete manifestation; this use closely approaches transient passives of various kinds. Root-words 15in this use are most commonly conjunctive attributes, but the object construction, especially in the predicate, is frequent. Aŋ ágaw nya ŋ laruwàn ay inilagay nyà sa kahòn. The toys he snatched were put by him into a box. Síno sa maŋa táo aŋ ináko ni Mariyáno? Aŋ áko ni Mariyáno ay si Pédro. 20Which one of the men did Mariano relieve?—The one whom Mariano relieved is Pedro. Hwag kayò ŋ mamútol naŋ kawáya ŋ hindí ninyo áriʾ. Don’t make a cutting of bamboo not owned by you; aŋ áriʾ property, aŋ may áriʾ the owner or master. Aŋ bigay nyà sa ákin naŋ Paskò naŋ Paŋaŋanàk 25na nagdaàn ay isa ŋ tabakéra. For last Christmas he gave me a tabatiere. aŋ bíhis nya ŋ damìt the (good) clothes she has put on (in place of her others). isa ŋ bíroʾ a joke. aŋ byày na isdàʾ sa palàisdáan the fish allowed to swim free in the fish-reservoir. aŋ dalà that carried; Dalà ni Hwàn aŋ lumbò. Juan is carrying 30the cup. aŋ dikìt naŋ apòy the blazing of the fire. Aŋ orasàn ni Hwàn ay gáliŋ sa Parìs. Juan’s watch comes from Paris. Aŋ tornìlyo ŋ itò y gámit sa mákina. This screw is used in the machine. aŋ gantì nya ŋ pálaʾ the gift he gave in return. Aŋ kwáko ŋ itò ay ganti ŋ pálaʾ sa ákin ni Hwàn. This cigar-holder 35is a return-gift to me from Juan. May hálo ŋ iba ŋ bágay aŋ gátas na itò. This milk has something else mixed in with it. háti ŋ gabì midnight. Aŋ hampàs na tinaŋgàp ni Hwàn sa kanya ŋ paŋinoòn ay isà ŋ kabàn. The whipping Juan got from his master was twenty-five strokes. May háraŋ na púno-ŋ-káhoy aŋ daà ŋ 40patúŋo sa báriyo naŋ San-Visènte. The road toward the district of San Vicente has a tree obstructing it. Húle si Hwàn naŋ pulìs. Juan was arrested by the policeman. Aŋ igìb nya ŋ túbig ay marumè. The water he dipped from the spring is dirty. Aŋ binàbása nya ŋ librò ay kathà ni Risàl. The book he is reading was written by Rizal. Laàn (or: taàn) kay Pédro aŋ alaála ŋ itò. This present is reserved for Pedro. Aŋ lákad ni Hwàn ay aŋ 5paŋhihiràm. Juan’s errand is to borrow something. Aŋ lúlan ni Hwàn sa kanya ŋ karitòn ay maŋa kahòn naŋ álak. Juan’s load on his wagon is cases of liquor; aŋ lúla ŋ kasaŋkápan the loaded utensils. Aŋ manòk na yitò y lúto sa durúan. This chicken is roasted on the spit. Nàhúle si Hwàn sa tabì naŋ kanya ŋ nákaw 10na kabáyo. Juan was caught with the horse he stole. Aŋ pásak naŋ baŋkàʾ ay bunòt naŋ nyòg at pagkìt. The boat is calked with cocoanut fibre and wax. Aŋ pígil ni Hwàn ay aŋ kabáyo. Juan is trying to restrain the horse. Aŋ pintàs ko kay Hwàn ay aŋ kanya ŋ bísyo ŋ paginòm. What I don’t like about Juan is his 15vice of drunkenness. aŋ púlot anything picked up; an adopted child. aŋ isa ŋ pútol na púno-ŋ-káhoy a tree that has been cut up; Aŋ pútol naŋ káhoy ay nàpakaiklèʾ. The wood has been cut too short. Aŋ librò ay aŋ sadyá ko sa báhay ni Hwàn. The book is what I went to Juan’s house for. Aŋ sakày sa trèn ay limà ŋ 20kompanyà ŋ sundálo. The people in the train are five companies of soldiers. Aŋ saŋkàp naŋ manòk ay kalabása. The chicken is cooked with pumpkin. “Magsipagsísi kayò, maŋa táo ŋ makasalánan,” aŋ sigàw naŋ kúra mulá sa pùlpito. “Repent, ye sinners,” was the cry of the priest from the pulpit. isa ŋ súboʾ a 25mouthful. Marámi sya ŋ tágo ŋ kwaltà. He has much money saved away. Aŋ tanìm naŋ búkid ay pálay na malagkìt. The field is planted with a sticky rice. Aŋ taŋgàp nya ŋ bílin ay lubhà ŋ marámi. The commissions he received were numerous. Malakàs aŋ táwa ni Hwàn. Juan’s laughter was loud. Aŋ táwag sa lugàr 30na itò ay Kinamatayà-ŋ-Kabáyo. They call this place Dead Horse. aŋ tuŋtòŋ that on which something stands; a mat on which dishes are set (specific name: dikìn). Aŋ túrù naŋ bátaʾ ay aŋ mansánas sa mésa. The child is pointing at the apple on the table. Aŋ usísaʾ sa ákin ni Hwàn ay kuŋ saan nàndon aŋ kanya ŋ sombréro. 35What Juan asked me was where his hat was. Walá sya ŋ uwì ŋ maŋa librò. He did not bring home any books. Aŋ talìm naŋ gúlok ay yári sa Yurúpa. The cutting-edge of the bolo is made in Europe.

(c) Especially with the particle nà (§ 223) the root-word 40often expresses a brusque command; in this use it is in competition with transient forms. Dalí ka naŋ iyo ŋ pagtakbò. Hurry your running, i. e. Run faster. Hampàs na kayò, maŋa bátaʾ, sa maŋa laŋgàm. Whip at the ants, boys. Hátì na naŋ mansánas. Divide up the apples. Hintú na kayò, maŋa bátaʾ. Stop, children. Ísip na kayò kuŋ anò aŋ kahulugàn naŋ áki ŋ bugtòŋ. Guess the meaning of my riddle. Láyas na! Get out! Lígù na! Take a bath! 5Luksu nà sa tinìk na iyàn. Jump across those spines. Sáma nà sa kanyà. Go to him. Táwag na naŋ maŋa polìs. Call the police. Tayòʾ. Stand up. Upú na. Sit down.

(d) Repeated with naŋ (§ 191) root-words, as predicates, denote an actor in repeated and continuous action: Nàkíta ko ŋ 10pútol naŋ pútol si Hwàn naŋ tubò. I saw Juan cutting away at the sugar-cane. Similarly (see Index) bilì and táwa.

342. Root-words with accent-shift. Barytone roots are used as root-words with shift of accent to the last syllable to denote something which has been affected by the action, quality, or (in 15fewer cases) thing, which is denoted by the root. The particle nà is usually added. Agaw nà sa súnog aŋ maŋa laruwàn. The toys have been snatched from the fire. Awá na si Hwàn sa kanya ŋ pinarùrusáha ŋ anàk. Juan is already overcome with pity for his child, whom he is punishing. Aŋ áso ni Hwàn ay bahày. Juan’s 20dog is grown up in the house, is completely domesticated. Aŋ báta ŋ si Hwàn ay bahày. Little Juan is shy, is unused to strangers. Bayad nà aŋ útaŋ sa ákin ni Hwàn. Juan’s debt to me is paid now. Bihis nà aŋ bátaʾ. The child’s clothes have been changed, The child is dressed up now. Bilaŋ nà aŋ maŋa itlòg 25na itò. These eggs are already counted. Aŋ úlo ni Hwàn ay bilòg. Juan’s head is round; or: Juan has been fooled; aŋ bilòg na táboʾ the round dipper. Buhày aŋ áki ŋ inà. My mother is living. Sya y bulàg. He is blinded; or: He is blind; aŋ babáye ŋ bulàg the blind woman. Daiŋ nà aŋ isdàʾ. The fish has been 30laid open. isa ŋ táo ŋ gutòm a hungry (or: gluttonous) person. Hatí na aŋ tubò. The sugar-cane is cut in two. Huli nà si Hwána sa trén. Juana is late for the train. Aŋ karnè ay ihaw nà. The meat is done. Init nà aŋ gátas. The milk is heated. Kayas nà aŋ kawáya ŋ itò. This bamboo is already smoothed. Aŋ 35pagkùkúnan nya naŋ itlòg ay aŋ kahò ŋ kulaŋ nà. He will take eggs from the box that is already started (literally: incomplete, cf. Ápat na sèntimos aŋ kúlaŋ nitò. This lacks four cents, is four cents too little). Lakàd kamì ŋ umwèʾ. We went home on foot. Lipas nà aŋ gamòt (aŋ pabaŋòʾ). The medicine (the perfume) is stale, has lost its strength. Lipas nà aŋ 40áki ŋ gútom. My hunger has disappeared. Pasòʾ aŋ lugàr na itò naŋ kanya ŋ kamày. This spot on his hand is burned; aŋ pasòʾ a pottery dish. Aŋ pagkakàgalítan ni Hwàn at ni Pédro ay pawí nà. The quarrel between Juan and Pedro is now allayed. Pigil nà aŋ kabáyo. The horse is under control now. Aŋ káhoy ay putul nà. The wood is now cut. Itò y sirá na. This is already ruined. Sunòg aŋ damìt na kanya ŋ pinirìnsa. The clothes which 5she ironed are scorched; sunòg na asúkal burnt sugar. Tamá na aŋ iyo ŋ pagkwènta. Now you have figured it correctly. Tipun nà an maŋa kalabàw. Now the carabao are rounded up. Tulis nà aŋ lápis. The pencil is sharpened. Turòʾ aŋ kanya ŋ dalíreʾ. His finger is stiff.

(a) In the case of some roots this form is used like a simple root-word without accent-shift; these are roots in which the accent-shift 15expresses a modification of the material meaning; see § 337. So: alàm that known (see Index); Babá na riyàn sa iyò ŋ kinàùupàn! Come down from your perch! Aŋ sakìt na kanya ŋ tinítiis ay aŋ lagnàt na típus. The sickness from which he is suffering is typhoid fever. 20(aŋ sákit na kanya ŋ tinítiìs the grief he is enduring). Sama táyo sa pagbilì naŋ pálay. Let us be partners in buying rice. Cf. also hulì, above.

(b) In oxytone roots, where the accent-shift cannot occur, our form is homonymous with the simple root-word: Bigti nà si 25Pédro. Pedro is now strangled. Bukas nà aŋ láta. The can is opened. Busug nà aŋ maŋa háyop. The animals have been fed their fill. Hintú na aŋ trén naŋ akò y sumakày. The train had stopped when I got on. Hubad nà aŋ bátaʾ. The child is undressed now. 30Aŋ maŋa Igoróte ay hubàd. The Igorote go naked. Huŋkuy nà aŋ bigàs. The rice is fanned now. Sya y kasàl. He (she) is married. Pantay nà aŋ lúpaʾ. The ground has been levelled. Nàkíta ko ŋ patìd aŋ sampáyan naŋ damìt. I saw that the clothes-line was broken. Punú na aŋ bóte ŋ itò. This bottle is already full. 35Tayú na aŋ báhay. The house is already erected. Tikwas nà aŋ káhoy. One end of the log is down.

343. Simple doubling. Simple doubling expresses explicit 40plurality or repetition, often with the idea of variation, intensity, or diminution: ápat-ápat four by four, four at a time, aŋ mata-matà trellis-work. Aŋ dúrù nya naŋ karáyom ay hindi parè-parého. Her stitches with the needle are not even. Sabày-sabày sila ŋ umalìs. They all went away at the same time. Similarly from: agàd, alìn, anò, áraw, bágay, bakìl, baluktòt, barà, gabì, 5gibàʾ, halòʾ, isà, lahàt, líbo, liŋgò, loòb, pantày, sáriʾ, síno, sunòd, tulàʾ, untìʾ.

(b) From derived words, in the same meaning: kaní-kanilà 10(ka-n-ilà § 528), kaní-kaníno (ka-n-í-no § 528), dalá-dalawà two by two, two at a time (da-lawà § 345), tatlu-tatlò three by three, three at a time (ta-tlò § 345).

(c) With retraction of accent: Dálì-dáli sya ŋ tumakbò. He ran off like a flash.

15344. (1) D. In some cases the accent is shifted; the meaning is the same: Putòl-putòl aŋ katawàn ni Hwàn naŋ áki ŋ màkíta. Juan’s body was all cut up when I saw it. This form from: báhay, báyan, púnit, sábi, súlok.

20345. Simple reduplication. In a very few cases the place of the root-word is taken by the root with reduplication. The only clear case is tutulè ear-wax, root -tulè. The numerals dalawà two and tatlò three seem to be irregularly reduplicated forms of roots -lawà and -tlò (for -talò?), as a few of the derivatives 25seem to indicate. A number of words, treated in the following as simple roots, have, however, the aspect of this formation: babáye, bibiŋkà, bubuwìt a kind of mouse, gagambà, laláki, papáya (Spanish), tutubè, totoò.

346. Accented reduplication. Accented reduplication is used 30chiefly in transient forms (§ 348); distinct from this use seems to be that of numerals, in the meaning of only so many: àápat, íilàn, íisà; similarly dá-dalawà only two (from da-lawà) (§ 345).

mámayàʾ, mámyàʾ seems to be felt as a simple root-word and has been treated as such.

347. Of the two prefixes round which primary forms are grouped (§ 340), pag- is used only for abstracts of action (§§ 348. 350. 351); with paŋ- are formed words denoting the thing used for doing so and so, or as such and such: Nawalàʾ aŋ kanyà ŋ 40paŋakálaʾ. His power of thought left him. aŋ paŋatìp that used for roofing, a shingle. Magpapútol ka, Pédro, naŋ maŋa kawáya ŋ paŋbákod. Have some bamboo cut for a fence, Pedro. aŋ paŋbambò a stick or club used for beating. paŋbayò instrument for pounding rice, pestle. paŋdilìg implements used for sprinkling. 5paŋgápas a slicer, a curved knife with saw-toothed edge. Aŋ ginámit nya ŋ paŋgupìt na guntìŋ sa damìt ay mapuròl. The scissors he used for cutting cloth were dull; also simply: aŋ paŋgupìt scissors, shears, aŋ paŋhampàs a whip. Aŋ ginawà ŋ paŋháraŋ sa daàn naŋ maŋa tulisàn ay isa ŋ gibà ŋ karitòn. The robbers used 10a broken-down wagon to make the obstruction on the road. Aŋ laséta ŋ itò ay paŋháteʾ naŋ dáyap. This knife is used for cutting limes. aŋ paŋlípaʾ the sticky mud used for smoothing the threshing-floor. aŋ paŋagínip a dream. pamitìk a single rein (one guides the animal by flicking it in various ways, cf. pitìk a fillip, a flick, 15a snap). pamatày in pamatay-kúto thumb, literally: that with which one kills head-lice (kúto). Pamútol naŋ buhòk aŋ guntìŋ na itò. These shears are used for cutting hair. Aŋ salawàl na yitò y sya kò ŋ paŋsakày sa kabáyo. These are my trousers for horseback-riding. Aŋ maŋa pintò ŋ may paŋsarà na gámit ay 20sumásara ŋ kúsaʾ. Doors that have closing attachments close themselves automatically. aŋ panáliʾ a halter or rope for tying up an animal. Aŋ kulilìŋ na ytò y sya kù ŋ panáwag naŋ alílaʾ. This bell is what I use for calling the servants; also: paŋtáwag. Aŋ paŋtayò naŋ halíge ay hindí dumatiŋ. The instruments for 25setting up posts (i. e. the cranes) did not arrive. Aŋ kalaykày ay sya kò ŋ ginámit na paŋtípon naŋ maŋa bunòt na damò. I used the rake for piling up the uprooted grass. aŋ panúroʾ a pointer, anything used for pointing. Sya y may salawàl na paŋupò sa damúhan at gayon dìn máy-roon syà ŋ paŋupò sa sùgálan. 30He has trousers for sitting on the lawn and others for when he sits at the gaming-table.

35(a) This derivative from numerals denotes a thing used to fill such and such a place: aŋ paŋápat that used as fourth, as: the fourth horse in a team; of similar meaning: paŋlimà fifth, paŋánim sixth, pamitò seventh, paŋwalò eighth, paŋsiyàm ninth. From the ordinal (§ 416,a) is formed paŋúna first. From phrases 40the higher numbers: paŋsa-m-pùʾ the tenth (sa m pùʾ ten), paŋlabi-ŋ-isà the eleventh (labi ŋ isà), paŋdalawa-ŋ-pùʾ twentieth, pamito-ŋ-pùʾ seventieth.

(b) A few formations show irregularities: panukálaʾ equivalent to paŋakálaʾ above, is felt to belong with akálaʾ; cf. the similar insertion of u in paubáyaʾ (§ 481,d); paŋinoòn master, does not seem to be felt as a derivative of ginoò and has therefore been 5treated as a separate root.

Second and third are derived from the reduplicated form (§ 345) and show phonetic irregularity: aŋ paŋalawà the second; one’s second in a duel; paŋatlò third, third horse in a gun-carriage; similarly paŋatlo-ŋ-pùʾ the thirtieth.

10(c) From root with accent shift (§ 337) only paŋhulè the last (of an established series).