152. General features of word-formation.
332. Many words are analyzed into (1) recurring affixes, (2) doubling, (3) reduplication, and (4) a recurring unanalyzable element bearing the material meaning, the root. The place of the root may be taken by a word in turn showing derivation by 20these processes, or by a compound word, or even by a phrase. Other words, root-words, contain only the unanalyzable element.
Other modifications affecting the meaning are shifting of the accent toward the end of the word, and the use of secondary accents.
25Modifications not affecting the meaning, but merely accompanying those already named, are sound-variation and retraction of the accent toward the beginning of the word.
The same morphologic elements may be variously distributed; it is most convenient and corresponds most nearly to the speech-feeling 30to describe these differences as though they were due to different successions in which the modifications are applied: sumùsúlat is súlat reduplicated and with infix -um-; but (nag-)tùtumirà is tirà with infix -um-, then reduplicated (plus prefix nag-).
The part of a word to which a modification is (in this sense) 35said to be added will be called the underlying word (or phrase): in sumùsúlat the infix -um- is added to the underlying word sùsúlat, in (nag-)tùtumirà reduplication is added to the underlying word tumirà; in ikasa-m-pùʾ the tenth the prefixes ka- and i- are successively added to the underlying phrase sa m pùʾ ten.
40Roots not actually occurring in this book as independent words will be written with a hyphen prefixed (-káin), except in unmistakable lists of roots.
333. The root. Except for some pronoun forms and particles, the roots have two or more syllables and are almost always 5accented either on the last (oxytone roots) or on the next-to-last (barytone roots): báhay house, kamày hand.
Some disyllabic roots are formed as though a single syllable were repeated: bitbìt, budbòd, buŋbòŋ piece of unsplit bamboo, damdàm, dibdìb chest (part of body), dikdìk, diŋdìŋ (dindìŋ, § 20), 10gága, hinhìn, ladlàd, laglàg, liŋkìŋ, lublòb, maŋmàŋ, niŋnìŋ, padpàd, paŋpàŋ, pukpòk, satsàt, siksìk, siŋsìŋ, sísi, súso breast, nipple, sutsòt, tadtàd, tiktìk, tiŋtìŋ (tintìŋ), tugtòg, tuktòk, tuŋtòŋ (tuntòŋ), ulòl.
Of the roots of more than two syllables some similarly repeat 15one or two syllables: alaála, babáye (see § 345), bulaklàk, lipumpòn (beside lípon).
Others appear as though a syllable -al- or -ag- were infixed (or prefixed) before the first syllabic: alagàd (cf. agàdʾ), balahíbo fur, hair on the body, balíkat, balítaʾ, Balíwag, balúbad, 20baluktòt, dalága, dalamháteʾ, dalandàn, dalaŋhítaʾ, daláŋin, halakhàk, haláman, halíge, halimbáwaʾ, halimhìm, kalabòg, kalákal, kalasìŋ, kalaykày, kaluskòs, palakàʾ, salakàb, salákay, salakòt a rain-hat of palm-leaves, salapèʾ, salawàl, salaysày, salitàʾ, salúboŋ, salúkoy, talastàs, taluŋkòʾ,—bagábag, bagáso bare stalk, of sugar-cane 25or corn (Spanish brazo, whence Tagalog baráso arm, assimilated to this type?), Hagúnoy, lagablàb, lagánap, pagakpàk, sagásaʾ, sagitsìt.
In some instances roots of the same or similar meaning resemble each other in form. This is commonest in loan-words, where 30different degrees of assimilation exist side by side: biróke, bitóke blow-gun bullet (Spanish bodoque); palànsa, pirìnsa flatiron (Spanish plancha). It occurs also, however, in native (or anciently assimilated) roots: aniyáyaʾ, yáyaʾ; ánib, sánib (for sa ánib?); balítaʾ, salitàʾ; bitàw, bitìw; bugòk, bulòk; buŋáŋaʾ 35mouth, maw (naŋ hurnò of the oven, naŋ kalàn of the stove), suŋáŋaʾ a blow on the mouth; dinìg, kinìg; ípon, lípon (lipumpòn, above), típon; laàn, taàn; luhòd, túhod; maŋhàʾ, taŋhàʾ; matày, patày; hantày, hintày.
When syllables of a root resemble affixes, there is always 40possibility that the root may be interpreted as a derived word by the speech-feeling, no matter whether historically it be such or not. Thus the Index will show many roots whose initial syllables are identical with prefixes; the other cases will be mentioned under the various affixes.
334. Affixation. Prefixes are added to the initial of the underlying word: nag-tirà; infixes before the first syllabic: t-um-irà, 5um-alìs; suffixes to the end: tìrá-han.
Affixes are occasionally accompanied by retraction of accent: itò, d-íto. See §§ 343,c. 358,c.e. 481,c. 485,a. 523. 528,d.
In the following cases affixes are accompanied by sound-variation:
10(a) prefixes:
(1) The prefixes ending in g are treated phonetically as though they were separate words; this happens occasionally with other prefixes (§ 34).
(2) Initial d of the underlying word becomes r after the 15syllabic of a prefix in the roots listed in § 17. The change is constant only in the commonest formations: always pa-raàn, but naká-daàn beside naká-raàn. Striking irregularities at §§ 407,a. 468.
(3) The prefix i- and in some formations the prefix ka- contract 20with a following syllabic (§ 31): iy-ánib (for i-ánib), íwan (for i-íwan), ka-yibíg-an (for ka-ibíg-an), kàwáwaʾ (for ka-áwa-áwaʾ). See §§ 368. 401. 421. 426,b. 475,a. 481,c. 485,a.
(4) The prefixes ending in ŋ (maŋ-, naŋ-, paŋ-) alter a following initial, always in much-used words, frequently in others.
25Before an initial syllabic the ŋ is treated as though it belonged to the underlying word and not to the prefix. This appears in reduplication (§ 336).
Initial p, b, t, d, s, are often, initial k is always changed to the corresponding nasal: pamáloʾ (páloʾ with paŋ-), but also paŋ-pa-rikìt; 30pamilmìt (bilmìt), but also paŋ-bambò; panáliʾ (táliʾ), but also paŋ-takìp; panaláŋin (daláŋin), but also paŋ-dilìg; na-naríwaʾ (saríwaʾ), but also paŋ-sakày; naŋapàʾ (kapàʾ). Where the change is not made, the ŋ may be assimilated to dentals (§ 20): mandurúkit beside maŋdudúkit.
35Before nasals the ŋ is usually lost: namahálaʾ (mahálaʾ with naŋ-).
See paŋ- and maŋ- in List of Formations.
(5) The prefix hin- and its compounds give rise to a few similar changes, see §§ 357,b. 376,a. 518.
40(6) For occasional irregularities of prefixes see §§ 347,b. 481,d. 528.
(b) infixes:
(1) Where -in- is infixed in a word beginning with l, w, or y, this initial is usually interchanged with the n, so that, practically, we have a prefixed ni- instead of an infixed -in-: ni-lútoʾ (beside 5less common l-in-útoʾ), ni-walìs (beside w-in-íkaʾ), ni-yáyaʾ. See §§ 359 ff. 374 ff.
(2) Where words beginning with syllabic, h, l, w (and y) have the prefix i- and the infix -in-, the latter is almost always used as a prefix, preceding the i-: in-iy-útos, in-íwan (for in-i-íwan), 10in-i-hatìd, i-ni-lútoʾ (beside less common i-l-in-útoʾ), in-i-wisìk. See § 368.
(3) On -um- see § 348,b.
(c) suffixes:
(1) The suffixes (-an and -in) after a syllabic take an initial 15h: luksú-han.
(2) Final d always becomes r before a suffix: lakar-àn (lákad).
(3) When used in the formation of transient derivatives, as well as in some other of their uses, the suffixes are accompanied 20by irregular modifications of certain roots.
Some roots ending in syllabic are treated as if they ended in glottal stop; they are amà, kíta, matà: ama-ìn, kitá-an, matá-an.
Others are treated as though they ended in n; they are paà, tálo, táwa: paa-nàn (beside regular paa-hàn), talú-nan, tawá-nan.
25Other roots lose the syllabic of the last syllable, as well as a final glottal stop which may follow this; if the syllabic is final, the suffix adds h: asìn asn-àn, bigày bigy-àn, bilì bil-hàn, mulàʾ mul-àn. The roots so treated are: asìn, bigày, bilì, bukàs, dalà, hatìd, higàʾ, ibà (but also regular iba-hàn), eskuwéla, gawàʾ, káin, 30kamìt, lagày, lakì, likòd, masìd, mulàʾ, punòʾ, pútol (but also regular putúl-an), sakày, sákit, subò, sunòd, táŋan, tibàʾ, tiŋìn, tirà (but also regular tirá-han), ulìʾ, upòʾ, walàʾ.
Still other roots add assimilation, dissimilation, or metathesis of consonants to the loss of vowel: ának aŋk-àn, atìp apt-àn, 35danìw (? see § 421) ka-raniyúw-an, datìŋ datn-àn, gílid ta-ligd-àn (beside regular ta-gilír-an), halìk hagk-àn, haŋgà haŋg-àn (i. e. the h of -han is lost), kinìg kiŋg-àn, silìd sigl-àn, tanìm tamn-àn, tuwìd ka-tu-tur-àn.
Entirely irregular are the following: alaála alala-hánin (-hánin 40for -hin), aniyáya anyá-han, háriʾ ka-hariy-àn ka-hary-àn (beside regular pag-harí-an), íhip híp-an, ílag inlag-àn (for ilag-nàn? but also regular ilág-an), kawáyan kwayan-àn (beside regular kawayan-àn), kilála kilan-làn (for kilal-nàn?), kúha kú-nin, laròʾ laruw-àn larw-àn (beside regular laru-àn), pulòʾ ka-puluw-àn ka-pulw-àn (beside regular ka-pulu-àn), sála saŋ-làn (for sal-nan? 5also ka-salá-nan and regular salá-han), sundòʾ pagkà-sunduw-àn (beside regular -sundu-àn), táo ka-taw-àn (? see § 422, also regular ka-taú-han), totoò tòto-hánan (-hánan for -hàn).
335. Doubling. In certain formations the underlying word, if disyllabic, is repeated; the phonetic treatment is the same as 10that of successive words in a phrase (§ 34): agad-agàd, gabi-gabì, ápat-ápat, pa-lígid-lígid.
If the underlying word has more than two syllables, only the beginning of it, inclusive of the second syllabic, is repeated, and the final syllabic of this repeated part has a primary accent: kaní-kaníno, 15kaní-kanilà, nag-kagá-kagalìt (underlying word ka-galìt).
336. Reduplication. In some formations the beginning of the underlying word, including the first syllabic, is repeated, sù-súlat, á-akiyàt. Words with reduced i or u (§ 27) reduplicate with i, u: maka-sí-siyà, maka-sí-syà.
20Note the foreign words: krùs nag-kú-kurùs, trabáho nag-tá-trabáho.
Initial d of the roots listed in § 17 often becomes r after the reduplication: k-in-à-dò-roon-àn (doòn), nag-dá-daàn (daàn).
When a prefix which involves change of initial comes before 25a reduplicated form, the latter has the changed initial both in the reduplicative syllable and in the underlying part: nà-rò-roòn (doòn), pa-ŋu-ŋumìt (umìt with paŋ-, § 334, a, 4; also: paŋ-u-umìt) pútol pa-mu-mútol (pútol with paŋ-).
337. Accent-shift. In certain formations the accent is displaced 30one syllable toward the end of the word: súlat sulàt. This is especially the case before suffixes forming transient words: súlat sulát-an. In some formations with suffixes the accent moves two syllables toward the end of the word: súlat sulat-àn.
Certain roots are especially given to this change and show it 35in formations where it is not regular. In these roots the accent-shift is more or less clearly and regularly connected with a modification of meaning. The roots are: ábot overtake, with shift: reach for, take hold of, pass, hand; e. g. pa-ábot let oneself be overtaken, pa-abòt something caused to be handed, ákay, álam, 40áwaʾ, áyaw, bábaʾ, báhay, báyaʾ, búlag, gálit, gísiŋ, háyag, húli, lápit, láyoʾ, múra, sákit, sáma, síraʾ, tálo, támaʾ, táwa, túloy, úna. See Index. A few pairs of roots differing only in accent may possibly belong here, e. g. -ának family and anàk child.
338. Secondary accents. (1) In some formations a secondary accent is spoken on the initial syllable of the underlying word: 5alìs àlís-an, ka-galìt kàgalít-an, iyàk ìyák-an. If the first syllable is closed, the secondary accent is omitted: luksò luksú-han; so also if it is followed by consonant plus reduced vowel (§ 27): taniyàg tanyàg tanyág-an; and also if its own vowel is reduced: niyòg nyòg niyúg-an nyúg-an. There are some irregularities. See 10§§ 377,b. 383. 421. 421,b. 426,b.
(2) Prefixes and reduplications often take a secondary accent: nà-pútol (different in meaning from na-pútol), sù-súlat.
These secondary accents have phonetically the quality of primary accents when they come before short oxytone underlying 15words: ná-rinìg, á-akiyàt. If, however, the word is accented on a suffix, the accent on this is more audible and the secondary accent remains: nà-buks-àn. So also if there are two secondary accents: nà-rì-rinìg. Longer oxytone words not accented on a suffix vary; they have been transcribed as heard in each case: nag-sì-si-pag-laròʾ 20nag-sí-si-pag-laròʾ.
339. Indications. In the following description formations will be indicated as follows:
prefixes thus: nag-; infixes: -um-; suffixes: -an; secondary accent on prefixes: nà-;
25doubling by “D”, e. g. nag- D -an represents the formation seen in nag-aswàŋ-aswáŋ-an;
reduplication by “r”, with secondary accent by “R”, e. g. pag- r (pag-pu-pútol), nag- R (nag-pù-pútol), -um- R (s-um-ù-súlat), nag- R -um- (nag-tù-t-um-irà);
30secondary accent on the first syllable of the underlying word by “S”, e. g. S -an (àlís-an);
accent-shift by “(1)” or “(2)”, e. g. (1) describes the formation of sulàt from súlat; (1) -an (sulát-an); (2) -an (sulat-àn).
35340. Summary of formations. The various formations group themselves into eight classes: 1. simple formations without characteristic prefix, expressing simple actions, objects, etc.; 2. formations with characteristic prefix pag-, expressing chiefly transitive actions; 3. characteristic prefix paŋ-, deliberate actions; 4. si-, 40action by more than one actor; 5. paki-, action along with others; 6. ka-, reciprocal, involuntary, and accidental; 7. pa-, causative; 8. pati-, reflexive.
These indications are a mere rough guide: neither the characteristic prefix nor the meaning indicated runs through the entire group. The first three groups are the most important, and, to a large extent, each formation of the other five groups belongs also 5to one of the three primary groups.
In each group there are four types of words: simple static, transient, abstracts of action, and special static. The simple static words involve no idea of active or passive; the transients are accompanied by abstracts, in which the transient occurrence is viewed 10as a static concept, and by special static words, which, though static, involve the idea of voice: simple static súlat a document, writing, letter; transient sumúlat wrote, sulátan is to be written to; abstract pagsúlat an act of writing; special static sulatàn a writing-desk (with idea of local passive).
15Each (active or passive, § 92) transient formation exists in two modes, actual and contingent, and each of these has two aspects, punctual and durative; the durative always has accented reduplication. The actual mode envisages the occurrence as actually having taken place or taking place: in the punctual aspect the 20occurrence is viewed in its entirety, without regard to duration, and hence always as past: nagáral studied, learned; in the durative aspect of the actual the occurrence is viewed as a process going on in time, past or present: nagàáral was studying, is studying, used to study, studied (repeatedly), studies. The contingent 25mode views the occurrence as not having actually taken place: the punctual aspect views it as possible, hypothetical, or commanded: magáral should study, study (as command); the durative as future from the point of view of the past or present: magàáral will study, was going to study. The punctual contingent 30form is used not only in commands and hypothetical clauses, but in subordinate predications and complements generally, even, for instance, after naŋ (§ 192 f.), and often, in such constructions, in competition with actual forms. It is often used, further, after hindìʾ (§ 238). When objectivized with aŋ, it expresses the possibility 35or circumstance of the occurrence: aŋ magáral a hypothetical studier, the circumstance that one might study.
The abstracts of action are much used in the construction described at § 274.
In addition to these more or less regular and systematized 40forms, there are various isolated formations, which will be discussed after the others.
A systematically arranged list of formations precedes the Index.